Malins, Jeffrey G.

Importance Timely identification of aortic stenosis (AS) is essential for appropriate clinical management, yet screening remains limited by dependence on comprehensive echocardiography and trained imaging personnel. Objective To develop and validate a deep learning algorithm for detection of moderate or greater AS and prospectively evaluate its performance using artificial intelligence (AI)–guided focused cardiac ultrasound (FoCUS) acquired by novice operators. Design, Setting, and Participants This diagnostic study included retrospective algorithm development and validation and prospective evaluation of AI-guided FoCUS across Mayo Clinic sites in the Midwest, Arizona, and Florida. The model was developed using 6753 patients and evaluated in internal validation (n = 852), internal test (n = 844), and validation (n = 1912) cohorts. Performance was assessed on FoCUS acquired by experienced sonographers (n = 602) and prospectively by novice operators (n = 1302). The retrospective model development and validation cohorts comprised studies performed from January 2005 through September 2022. Prospective study was conducted in 2 enrollment periods from June to August 2024 and from June to September 2025. Participants from both periods were combined to comprise the final prospective cohort. Exposure AI-guided FoCUS acquisition and automated deep learning–based assessment for detection of moderate or greater AS. Main Outcomes and Measures Detection of moderate or greater AS. Performance was assessed using area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC), sensitivity, specificity, and positive predictive value. Results The model demonstrated excellent discrimination in the internal test cohort (AUROC, 0.99; 95% CI, 0.98-1.00) and geographically distinct validation cohorts in Arizona (AUROC, 0.99; 95% CI, 0.97-1.00) and Florida (AUROC, 0.99; 95% CI, 0.96-1.00). Among FoCUS examinations acquired by experienced sonographers, sensitivity was 95% (95% CI, 82-99) and specificity was 97% (95% CI, 95-98). In the prospective novice-operator cohort, 1258 of 1302 examinations (96.6%) were suitable for automated analysis. Sensitivity was 93% (95% CI, 82-99) and specificity was 96% (95% CI, 95-97). Expert review of AI-positive and uninterpretable examinations increased the positive predictive value from 49.4% to 91.1%, with sensitivity of 85.4%. Conclusions and Relevance A deep learning algorithm accurately detected moderate or greater AS across validation cohorts in this study. In prospective evaluation, novice operators were able to acquire AI-guided FoCUS examinations that enabled accurate detection of moderate or greater AS. These findings support a scalable strategy that may expand access to AS detection in settings with limited echocardiography resources.

Abstract Aims Heart failure is prevalent; however, there is no cost-effective screening option. Against formal echocardiography, we assessed the diagnostic performance of focused cardiac ultrasound (FoCUS), performed by novice users guided and interpreted by artificial intelligence (AI) for the assessment of left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). Methods and results We prospectively enrolled 496 adults referred for diagnostic echocardiography. Novice operators (without clinical or imaging experience) underwent a 4-h imaging workshop, then performed FoCUS using a point-of-care device (Philips Lumify) utilizing real-time AI-image guidance (UltraSight). Images were assessed by AI-image interpretation software (Mayo Clinic), and two expert blinded echocardiologists. Median age was 67, 39% female, and body mass index range 17–56 kg/m2. Forty-one subjects (8.3%) exhibited moderate or greater LV dilatation and 28 (5.6%) had LVEF <40%. The median scan time was 4 min (IQR 3–5). Adequate views were achieved in 95.0% and 97.4% of subjects for AI interpretation and expert analysis, respectively. A two-step diagnostic screening process for low EF in which only abnormal AI reads or uninterpretable scans were reviewed by experts (15.1%) had a sensitivity 96.2%, specificity 95.4%, PPV 54.3%, and NPV 99.8%. A subsequent prospective validation study of 344 subjects demonstrated similar results (sensitivity 100%, specificity 99.4%). Conclusion In this early feasibility investigation, AI-guidance technology embedded on a handheld device, enabled novice users without clinical or imaging experience to acquire sufficient quality images to accurately assess LVEF with minimal training. The technology evaluated in this study may hold promise for AI-guidance and interpretation to facilitate low-cost screening for cardiac dysfunction.

Abstract Background Mitral regurgitation (MR) and tricuspid regurgitation (TR) are prevalent valvular heart diseases associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Traditional echocardiography faces limitations in availability, cost, consistency, and reliability, leading to misdiagnosis and undertreatment. The application of artificial intelligence (AI) to echocardiographic scans has the potential to address these challenges. Methods This study evaluates the performance of an AI algorithm on an external population. The algorithm utilizes deep learning networks to analyze echocardiographic exams for diagnosing atrioventricular valve disorders. We tested the algorithm on transthoracic echocardiography data collected from a single center between 2013 and 2023. The model's performance was compared to ground truth values using two classification schemes: distinguishing between normal-mild and moderate-severe regurgitation, and categorizing results into four groups: normal, mild, moderate, and severe. Results The MR cohort included 280 patients, while the TR cohort comprised 298 patients. The model demonstrated a robust ability to identify clinically significant (moderate and above) atrioventricular valve regurgitation. The MR model achieved an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.98 (95% CI: 0.97–0.99), with 91% accuracy, 95% sensitivity, and 89% specificity. In comparison, the TR model exhibited an AUC of 0.96 (95% CI: 0.94–0.98), with 84% accuracy, 91% sensitivity, and 80% specificity. Conclusion The model demonstrated high diagnostic accuracy and reliability in assessing atrioventricular valve regurgitation severity, highlighting its potential as a valuable clinical tool. The findings underscore the role of AI in complementing expert evaluations and improving access to effective diagnostics, with future applications potentially including point-of-care diagnosis and monitoring of disease progression.

Abstract Background Right ventricular (RV) systolic function is an independent predictor of outcome, but a robust automated method of quantitation is lacking. Purpose To develop and validate a deep learning model for quantifying RV systolic function from 2D echo clips and assess its prognostic value in various loading states and left-heart disease. Methods A deep learning convolutional neural network (CNN) was developed to quantitate RV systolic function using all available apical 4 chamber (A4C) views from 13,039 patients (61,187 A4C video clips) in a US institution. Videos were converted to frames of 256x256 grayscale pixels, with graphics, including the ECG, removed. The model used the S3D architecture, a 3D-CNN with many of the spatial and temporal convolutions separated. RV free wall longitudinal strain (RVFWLS) was used to define RV function: normal (≤-25%); mild (-20% to –24%); moderate (-15% to –19%) and severe RV dysfunction (0% to –14%). The AI-estimate was the average of multiple 32-frame segments for each clip identified as an A4C, including both standard and RV-focused variations. The model was validated in four distinct clinical cohorts from independent data sources: 1) 1365 patients referred to an external diagnostic echocardiography lab in a different US state; 2) 569 patients recruited prospectively with known or suspected pulmonary hypertension (PH); 3) 416 patients with moderate or greater tricuspid valve regurgitation (TR); 4) 872 patients imaged at an Eastern European University with left-sided cardiac diseases (valvular disease, cardiomyopathies, etc.), athletes, or healthy volunteers. Results Model output was strongly correlated with the presence of RV dysfunction by manual measurement [AUC 0.907 (95% CI: 0.888-0.926)] in the internal validation set. Results were similar in an external validation US cohort [N=1365; AUC 0.919 (95% CI: 0.899-0.939)]. When the model was applied to 569 patients with known or suspected PH, presence and severity of the AI measures of RV dysfunction were strongly associated with functional class, 6 min walk distance, NT-proBNP levels and right heart failure (p<0.001). The presence and severity of RV dysfunction (as categorized by the AI model) was strongly associated with all-cause mortality in patients with PH (Figure 1A) and in patients with significant TR (Figure 1B). The European cohort was a geographically and institutionally distinct cohort with a low prevalence of >mild TR (10.8%) or PH (6.4%). In this cohort the AI model predicted a reduced RVEF (< 45%) with an AUC of 0.864 (95% CI: 0.831-0.898) and associated with both all-cause mortality (Figure 2A) and a composite endpoint of heart failure hospitalization or death (Figure 2B). Conclusions A fully automated, AI-based assessment of RV systolic function, using 2D apical 4 chamber echo views alone, is highly feasible and can accurately categorize disease severity and predict outcome across a wide spectrum of cardiovascular conditions.Figure 1 Figure 2

Abstract Aims Mitral and tricuspid regurgitation (MR and TR) are common in older adults and associated with substantial morbidity and mortality. While transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) is the diagnostic gold standard, access remains limited in many care settings. Artificial intelligence (AI)–based echocardiographic analysis may help address this diagnostic gap. Methods and results We externally validated a deep learning algorithm developed by Aisap.ai using TTE studies from the Mayo Clinic Health System (2013–23). The model analyses echocardiographic images to classify atrioventricular regurgitation severity and was evaluated against cardiologist interpretations. Performance was assessed using binary (normal–mild vs. moderate–severe) and ordinal (normal, mild, moderate, severe) classification schemes. Among 1541 eligible TTEs, the model returned predictions for 578 studies (38%). Performance analysis was limited to these cases. The MR cohort included 280 studies and the TR cohort 298. For MR, the model achieved an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) of 0.98 [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.97–0.99], with 91% accuracy, 95% sensitivity, and 89% specificity. For TR, the AUC was 0.96 (95% CI: 0.94–0.98), with 84% accuracy, 91% sensitivity, and 80% specificity. Conclusion In cases where a prediction was generated, the model demonstrated high diagnostic performance in identifying clinically significant atrioventricular regurgitation. These findings support the feasibility of AI-assisted echocardiography in diverse populations, while underscoring the need for technical alignment between model requirements and local acquisition practices to ensure real-world applicability.

Abstract Aims To develop a deep learning model that: (i) utilizes transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) clips to detect left ventricular (LV) enlargement without being provided information regarding a patient’s sex and body size; and (ii) can be accurately applied to clips acquired using either standard comprehensive TTE or handheld cardiac ultrasound (HCU). Methods and results Using retrospective TTE data (training: 8722 patients; internal validation: 468 patients), we developed a deep learning model that estimates a patient’s end-diastolic LV volume (indexed to body surface area and normalized across the sexes), and then thresholds this estimate to perform the following classifications: (1) normally sized LV vs. ≥ mild LV enlargement; (2) normal/mildly enlarged LV vs. ≥ moderate LV enlargement. For retrospective datasets, the model showed strong performance in TTE across three geographically distinct locations (Minnesota and Wisconsin: 1082 patients, AUC = 0.925 and 0.953 for classifications 1 and 2, respectively; Arizona: 1475 patients, AUC = 0.935 and 0.969; and Florida: 1481 patients, AUC = 0.934 and 0.970). Additionally, performance was strong for both TTE and HCU clips collected from a prospective cohort of 410 patients who underwent HCU immediately following TTE (TTE: AUC = 0.925 and 0.971; HCU: AUC = 0.874 and 0.902, for classifications 1 and 2, respectively). Conclusion An automated deep learning model applied to TTE or HCU images accurately categorizes LV volumes. These results lay a foundation for future work aimed at optimizing clinical outcomes for heart failure patients by enabling early detection of LV enlargement across various point-of-care settings.

Abstract Aims Augmenting echocardiography with artificial intelligence would allow for automated assessment of routine parameters and identification of disease patterns not easily recognized otherwise. View classification is an essential first step before deep learning can be applied to the echocardiogram. Methods and results We trained two- and three-dimensional convolutional neural networks (CNNs) using transthoracic echocardiographic (TTE) studies obtained from 909 patients to classify nine view categories (10 269 videos). Transthoracic echocardiographic studies from 229 patients were used in internal validation (2582 videos). Convolutional neural networks were tested on 100 patients with comprehensive TTE studies (where the two examples chosen by CNNs as most likely to represent a view were evaluated) and 408 patients with five view categories obtained via point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS). The overall accuracy of the two-dimensional CNN was 96.8%, and the averaged area under the curve (AUC) was 0.997 on the comprehensive TTE testing set; these numbers were 98.4% and 0.998, respectively, on the POCUS set. For the three-dimensional CNN, the accuracy and AUC were 96.3% and 0.998 for full TTE studies and 95.0% and 0.996 on POCUS videos, respectively. The positive predictive value, which defined correctly identified predicted views, was higher with two-dimensional rather than three-dimensional networks, exceeding 93% in apical, short-axis aortic valve, and parasternal long-axis left ventricle views. Conclusion An automated view classifier utilizing CNNs was able to classify cardiac views obtained using TTE and POCUS with high accuracy. The view classifier will facilitate the application of deep learning to echocardiography.

Background: Enlargement or dilation of the left ventricle (LV) is associated with increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, and is an established precursor of ventricular dysfunction and heart failure in almost all major cardiovascular conditions. Although there are existing artificial intelligence frameworks that make use of deep learning to detect LV enlargement, many entail LV segmentation, which can be error-prone especially for point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) images. Goal: To develop a fully end-to-end deep learning framework that takes as input either transthoracic echocardiographic (TTE) or POCUS 2D image clips, and classifies directly (i.e., without first segmenting the LV) whether a patient has an enlarged LV. Methods: Using a sample of retrospective TTE data enriched for LV enlargement (out of 13,868 patients total, 3,351 had an enlarged LV defined using sex-specific guideline-directed criteria), we trained a classifier that takes as input apical 2-chamber and parasternal long axis videos, and provides as output a binary label denoting whether a patient has an enlarged LV. Then, we evaluated the trained model using a holdout testing dataset of retrospective TTE data (2,087 patients) as well as data from a prospective cohort of 428 patients from whom TTE and POCUS were collected simultaneously. Results: For the retrospective TTE testing dataset, the AUC was 0.851 (95% confidence interval (CI) of 0.830-871). For the prospective cohort, the model performed comparably for both TTE and POCUS video clips (TTE: AUC of 0.865, 95% CI of 0.823-0.906; POCUS: AUC of 0.840, 95% CI of 0.797-0.883). Conclusions: The current deep learning model performed comparably well for both TTE and POCUS echocardiograms. We regard these results as a proof-of-concept of the potential utility of this model in helping point-of-care clinicians make decisions regarding whether patients should receive further evaluation for LV enlargement and associated conditions.

Background: Recently, our team developed an end-to-end artificial intelligence (AI) framework that can successfully estimate left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) from echocardiogram videos. However, this framework requires specific views (A2C and PLAX), and cannot estimate LVEF for studies from which these views are missing. Goal: To develop a deep learning model to estimate LVEF from any type and number of echocardiogram video(s). Methods: We built a deep learning model for B-mode echocardiogram videos of the left ventricle (A2C, A3C, A4C, or PLAX views), using retrospective transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) data. The model was evaluated with two test datasets: one with random valid (i.e., showing the left ventricle) views, and one with preselected views (both having 433 patients). Later, the model was tested with a prospective patient cohort that had both TTE and point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) data collected simultaneously (393 patients). Results: On the retrospective TTE test set, we observed excellent performance (five random valid views per study: RMSE of 6.87% and Pearson correlation (PC) of 0.82 on LVEF estimation, and an AUC of 0.96 (95% CI: of 0.94-0.98) on low LVEF classification (<=40%); preselected views: RMSE of 6.75%, PC of 0.83, and an AUC of 0.96 (95% CI: 0.94-0.98)). For both TTE and POCUS data from the prospective cohort, we also observed strong performance (TTE: RMSE of 5.62%, PC of 0.87, and an AUC of 0.97; POCUS: RMSE of 6.12%, PC of 0.84, and an AUC of 0.96). For the prospective test sets as well as for the retrospective TTE test set with preselected views, results reflect the estimated LVEF average of A2C, A3C, A4C, and PLAX videos from each patient. Conclusions: For both TTE and POCUS data, the current model showed strong performance which was comparable to that of our previously established view-specific model. Alongside this comparable performance, the current model surpasses our previous model in terms of flexibility, as it isn't dependent on view classification and allows a broader selection in terms of the number and types of videos per study or patient. This innovative approach could prove particularly beneficial in point-of-care situations in which it may not be feasible to obtain high-quality, view-specific videos.