Citations

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Contemporary skull base surgeons must understand transcranial and endoscopic endonasal approaches to the petrous apex (PA). We provide an anatomic overview and comparison of main approaches to the PA through illustrative anatomic dissections. METHODS: On 10 sides of 5 specimens, transcranial approaches to the PA including the anterior petrosal, transcochlear, and retrosigmoid with suprameatal extension were performed. For endoscopic endonasal approaches, the transclival approach was performed in the midline of 5 specimens and its contralateral transmaxillary extension was performed on 10 sides. RESULTS: The anterior petrosal approach offers an anterolateral view of the PA bounded by petrous ridge posteromedially, internal auditory canal posterolaterally, greater superficial petrosal nerve anterolaterally, and lateral boundary of cranial nerve V, the Gasserian ganglion, and V3 anteromedially; it exposes the middle fossa and, once the PA is removed, the superomedial cerebellopontine angle. The transcochlear approach affords a lateral view of the PA defined medially and inferiorly by inferior petrosal sinus, posteriorly by posterior fossa dura, anteriorly by the petrous internal carotid artery, and superiorly by the superior petrosal sinus and middle fossa dura. Through a retrosigmoid approach, the PA is bounded by the superior petrosal sinus superiorly, the sagittal plane of cranial nerve VI medially, and the axial and sagittal plane of the internal auditory canal porus inferiorly and laterally, respectively. It affords a panoramic view of the posterior fossa and access to Meckel's cave after PA drilling. Endoscopic endonasal approaches target the anteromedial PA, and it is demarcated by a triangle consisting of cranial nerve VI posterolaterally, the paraclival segment of the internal carotid artery anteriorly, and the petroclival synchondrosis inferiorly and medially. The addition of the contralateral transmaxillary approach enhances lateral access up to the internal auditory canal. CONCLUSION: We provide a comprehensive overview of the main approaches to the PA through illustrative anatomic dissections and representative cases.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The intraosseous subarcuate loop (SL) is a unique variant of the anterior inferior cerebellar artery (AICA), where a loop of the artery is trapped in the petrous bone's subarcuate fossa (SF). Recognizing this variant is crucial for planning cerebellopontine angle (CPA) surgeries; however, data regarding its frequency and management vary in the published literature. A cohort from a single center was studied using MRI to assess its prevalence, and the findings were compared with the existing literature. In addition, an intraoperative guide for mobilizing the intraosseous AICA's SL was provided through a detailed step-by-step cadaveric dissection. METHODS: Two hundred fifty-eight patients who had undergone MRI scans of the CPA (516 sides) were retrospectively reviewed. MRIs displaying vascular loops visible in the axial view were analyzed using multiplanar reconstruction, and the intraosseous loop frequency was evaluated. A scoping review was undertaken to provide an overview of previously published data on its prevalence. One embalmed and latex-injected specimen with intraosseous AICA's SL was dissected through a retrosigmoid approach, and 1 surgical case was detailed, describing the procedure to release it. RESULTS: Intraosseous AICA's SL mobilization involves the identification of its entry and exit points within the petrous bone, dural incision to expose the SF, SF drilling, subarcuate artery division, and detaching the vascular loop. Preservation of a dural cuff is crucial to prevent vascular injury. We analyzed 258 brain MRIs (mean age 55 years, 42% male). The intraosseous AICA's SL was present in 4 of 516 evaluated CPAs (0.8%). The prevalence of the vascular anomaly in the reviewed literature using different radiological modalities ranged from 0.2% to 1.6%. CONCLUSION: The intraosseous AICA's SL is an uncommon anatomic variation detectable by MRI, posing an added risk in CPA surgery. Identifying and properly mobilizing it is crucial for safe vascular preservation.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The coexistence of complete carotico-clinoid bridge (CCB), an ossification between the anterior (ACP) and the middle clinoid (MCP), and an interclinoidal osseous bridge (ICB), between the ACP and the posterior clinoid (PCP), represents an uncommonly reported anatomic variant. If not adequately recognized, osseous bridges may complicate open or endoscopic surgery, along with the pneumatization of the ACP, especially when performing anterior or middle clinoidectomies. METHODS: According to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses for Scoping Reviews guidelines, a systematic scoping review was conducted up to June 5, 2023. PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science databases, and additional citations were searched. Two hundred high-resolution noncontrast computed tomography (CT) scans (400 sides) and 41 dry skulls (82 sides) were analyzed to identify the different morphology of sellar bridges, focusing on the coexistence of complete CCF and ICB. Two embalmed latex-injected heads with coexisting CCF and ICB were dissected step-by-step to show the anatomic relationship with the surrounding structures from an endoscopic and microscopic perspective. RESULTS: A total of 19 articles were included. The review identified a complete CCF and ICB rate ranging from 4.92% to 6.3%. The analysis of 200 CT scans revealed a rate of coexistence in 4% of the cases, all encountered in White women. Two different types of interclinoid bridges were identified based on the degree of bone mineralization. Both endoscopic and macroscopic step-by-step dissections highlighted variability in morphology and consistency of the sellar bridges and the close relationship with the cavernous sinus neurovascular structures. CONCLUSION: The coexistence of CCF and ICB is an anatomic variation found in 4% of cases. Preoperative knowledge of the degree of mineralization and its relationship with surrounding structures is essential to performing safe surgery and minimizing cranial nerve and vascular injuries. Preoperative high-resolution CT scans can adequately identify these anatomic variations.

OBJECTIVE Several pathologies either invade or arise within the orbit. These include meningiomas, schwannomas, and cavernous hemangiomas among others. Although several studies describing various approaches to the orbit are available, no study describes all cranio-orbital and orbitocranial approaches with clear, surgically oriented anatomical descriptions. As such, this study aimed to provide a comprehensive guide to the microsurgical and endoscopic approaches to and through the orbit. METHODS Six formalin-fixed, latex-injected cadaveric head specimens were dissected in the surgical anatomy laboratory at the authors’ institution. In each specimen, the following approaches were modularly performed: endoscopic transorbital approaches (ETOAs), including a lateral transorbital approach and a superior eyelid crease approach; endoscopic endonasal approaches (EEAs), including those to the medial orbit and optic canal; and transcranial approaches, including a supraorbital approach, a fronto-orbital approach, and a 3-piece orbito-zygomatic approach. Each pertinent step was 3D photograph–documented with macroscopic and endoscopic techniques as previously described. RESULTS Endoscopic endonasal approaches to the orbit afforded excellent access to the medial orbit and medial optic canal. Regarding ETOAs, the lateral transorbital approach afforded excellent access to the floor of the middle fossa and, once the lateral orbital rim was removed, the cavernous sinus could be dissected and the petrous apex drilled. The superior eyelid approach provides excellent access to the anterior cranial fossa just superior to the orbit, as well as the dura of the lesser wing of the sphenoid. Craniotomy-based approaches provided excellent access to the anterior and middle cranial fossa and the cavernous sinus, except the supraorbital approach had limited access to the middle fossa. CONCLUSIONS This study outlines the essential surgical steps for major cranio-orbital and orbitocranial approaches. Endoscopic endonasal approaches offer direct medial access, potentially providing bilateral exposure to optic canals. ETOAs serve as both orbital access and as a corridor to surrounding regions. Cranio-orbital approaches follow a lateral-to-medial, superior-to-inferior trajectory, progressively allowing removal of protective bony structures for proportional orbit access.