Citations

ABSTRACTImmunotherapy of autoimmune diseases has expanded substantially, yet autoimmunity remains incurable, and patients suffer from chronic destructive tissue inflammation that fails to resolve. Mechanisms underlying the endurance of autoimmune memory and the lack of exhaustion are beginning to be understood. Here, we review emerging data on how decentralization of cellular immunity contributes to persistent autoimmune responses and chronicity of autoimmune tissue inflammation. Two processes are recognized as ensuring lasting immune memory: the generation of tissue‐resident memory T cells (TRM) and the formation of tertiary lymphoid structures (TLS). TLS, lymphoid aggregates formed outside of lymphoid organs, develop under conditions of chronic immune stimulation, such as autoimmune disease, anti‐tumor immunity, and during immune aging. TLS display heterogeneity in structure and cellular composition that may determine whether they ultimately serve as protective or pathogenic elements. Recent data have implicated TLS as a critical resource in upholding autoimmune responses, emphasizing their role in harming the host. In patients with autoimmune vasculitis, adventitial TLS drives protracted autoimmune disease by housing TCF1hi CD4+ T stem cells that escape exhaustion and provide a continuous supply of pathogenic effector T cells to the disease lesions. The local production and stemness of CD4+ T cells bring resilience to autoreactive immunity, defining novel therapeutic targets in the management of autoimmune disease.

ABSTRACT Older adults are susceptible to infections, in part due to waning of immune memory. To determine mechanisms that determine long-lasting versus short-term immunity, we examined varicella zoster virus (VZV) vaccination as a model system. We contrasted VZV antigen-specific T cells several years after vaccination in adults who had been vaccinated at young (<20 years) or older age (>50 years) with a live-attenuated vaccine that confers durable protection only when given at young age, or with an adjuvanted VZV component vaccine that elicits effective, long-lasting immunity in older adults. CD8 + T cells were highly sensitive to age-related changes showing T cell subset shifts, loss in TCR diversity and reduced stem-like features while gaining NK-like signatures without evidence for cellular senescence or exhaustion. VZV-specific CD4 + T cells were largely resilient to age and maintained phenotypic and TCR diversity. Immunization of older adults with the adjuvanted VZV vaccine did not reverse age-associated defects in CD8 + T cells. Instead, it selectively improved the functionality of VZV-specific Th17 CD4 + T cells and prevented their acquisition of Treg features, likely as consequence of lipid metabolic pathways. Collectively, our data indicate that effective vaccination in older adults is supported by the generation of a durable, antigen-specific CD4 + Th17 population that resists mis-differentiation into Tregs and that compensates for age-related defects in CD8 + T cells. One sentence summary Aging primarily impairs the CD8 + T cell VZV vaccine response, while effective VZV vaccination in older adults induces antigen-specific Th17 CD4 + T cells to compensate for aging defects.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a life‐long autoimmune disease caused by the confluence of genetic and environmental variables that lead to loss of self‐tolerance and persistent joint inflammation. RA occurs at the highest incidence in individuals >65 years old, implicating the aging process in disease susceptibility. Transformative approaches in molecular immunology and in functional genomics have paved the way for pathway paradigms underlying the replacement of immune homeostasis with autodestructive immunity in affected patients, including the process of immune aging. Patients with RA have a signature of premature immune aging, best understood for CD4 + T cells, which function as pathogenic effectors in this HLA class II–associated disease. Premature immune aging is present in healthy HLA–DRB1*04 + individuals, placing accelerated immune aging before joint inflammation. Aging‐related molecular abnormalities directly implicated in turning RA CD4 + T cells into proinflammatory effector cells are linked to malfunction of subcellular organelles, such as mitochondria, lysosomes, lipid droplets, and the endoplasmic reticulum. Resulting changes in T cell behavior include cellular hypermobility, tissue invasiveness, unopposed mammalian target of rapamycin complex (mTORC)1 activation, excessive release of tumor necrosis factor, lysosomal failure, clonal expansion, and immunogenic cell death. Aged and metabolically reprogrammed T cells in patients with RA are accompanied by age‐associated B cells, which specialize in autoantibody production. Clonal hematopoiesis drives myeloid cell aging by producing aged monocytes and hypermetabolic macrophages, which sustain the process of inflammaging. Here, we synthesize insights into the relationship of RA risk and immune aging and discuss mechanisms through which immune aging can cause autoimmunity. image

Abstract Vasculitic neuropathy is caused by inflammatory destruction of nerve blood vessels resulting in nerve ischaemia. Nerve vasculitis can be divided into two categories based on vessel size: large-arteriole vasculitis (≥75 µm) and microvasculitis (&lt;75 µm). Herein, we characterize the clinical features of nerve large-arteriole vasculitis in comparison to nerve microvasculitis. This is a retrospective cohort study of patients evaluated and biopsied at Mayo sites between 2001 and 2020. We collected clinical and histopathological data from patients whose nerve biopsies were either diagnostic or highly suggestive of nerve vasculitis. Two hundred and seventy-eight cases were identified: 125 cases of large-arteriole vasculitis and 153 cases of microvasculitis. Nerve large-arteriole vasculitis presented with a more acute (50.4% versus 26.8%) versus chronic onset (33.6% versus 57.5%) than nerve microvasculitis (P = 0.0001). Nerve microvasculitis had longer mean time to diagnosis (10.5 versus 4.3 months; P &lt; 0.0001) and longer time to plateau (8.9 versus 3.5 months; P &lt; 0.0001). Nerve large-arteriole vasculitis typically presented as distal asymmetric polyneuropathy (48.0%), whereas nerve microvasculitis typically presented as radiculoplexus neuropathy/polyradiculoneuropathy (more proximal involvement of shoulder and thigh) (43.8%) (P &lt; 0.0001). Systemic autoimmune disease was more common in nerve large-arteriole vasculitis (70.4% versus 22.9%, odds ratio, 8.0; 95% confidence interval, 4.7–13.7; P &lt; 0.0001). Nerve microvasculitis was significantly related to non-systemic vasculitis (71% versus 23%, odds ratio, 7.9; 95% confidence interval, 4.6–13.6; P &lt; 0.0001). Nerve microvasculitis had more autonomic involvement (24.2% versus 7.2%, odds ratio, 4.1; 95% confidence interval, 1.9–8.9; P = 0.0002). Nerve large-arteriole vasculitis and nerve microvasculitis have different but overlapping clinical features. Nerve large-arteriole vasculitis usually presents with acute onset, distal asymmetric polyneuropathy, associated with other autoimmune diseases and systemic involvement. In contrast, nerve microvasculitis usually presents with a subacute/chronic onset, as radiculoplexus neuropathy/polyradiculopathy (distal and proximal pattern) with autonomic involvement, and is more often a form of non-systemic vasculitis.

The CD40-CD40L co-stimulatory dyad has been identified as critical player in atherosclerosis. Our previous work has shown that CD40 and CD40L have cell divergent effects on atherosclerosis. Deficiency of the CD40-CD40L dendritic cell-T cell axis decreased atherosclerosis via reducing T helper 1 responses, whereas deficiency of macrophages CD40 reduced atherosclerosis by enhancing efferocytosis and reducing necrotic core content. CD40 is highly expressed on B cells and interacts with CD40L on T cells to induce antibody production and T follicular helper cell responses. We therefore hypothesize that deletion of CD40 will reduce atherosclerosis. We aim to unravel the role of B cell CD40 in atherosclerosis. CD40 expression on B cell subsets was determined on peripheral blood mononuclear cells of patients and correlated with severity of coronary artery disease (CAD). Atherosclerosis was analyzed in CD19 Cre CD40 flfl ApoE -/- mice that were fed an atherogenic diet for 14 weeks. Patients with CAD showed a decrease in CD40 on their putative B1 cells, which was associated with increased plaque burden and decreased plaque fibrosis as detected by coronary intravascular ultrasound. Depletion of CD40 on B cells in ApoE -/- mice resulted in a decreased germinal center formation and inadequate IgM production as expected. However, in line with our patient data, absence of B cell-CD40 increased atherosclerosis. This was caused by a reduction in B1 cells and consequently a reduction in atheroprotective anti-oxidation specific epitope (OSE) IgMs. Transfer of CD40-competent B1b cells in B cell-CD40-deficient mice restored anti-OSE IgM levels and prevented the increase in atherosclerosis. CD40-deficient B1b cells have an altered mTOR signaling pathway, impaired mitochondrial function, excessive uptake of lipids, increased cellular stress and accelerated cell death. Data indicate that CD40-deficiency promotes phosphorylation of RAPTOR and protein kinase B (AKT). We have identified a novel function of CD40 on B1b cells. B1b cell-CD40 exerts an anti-atherogenic role by regulating B1b cell metabolic homeostasis via mTOR pathway. Further mechanistic insights into how CD40 mounts adequate atheroprotective anti-OSE IgM production are currently being investigated.

Abstract Objectives To examine the clinicopathologic features of patients with polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) who had thoracic aorta repair surgery. Findings were compared with those of a cohort of patients with giant cell arteritis (GCA) requiring thoracic aorta repair. Methods All patients evaluated at Mayo Clinic in Rochester, MN, with Current Procedural Terminology (CPT) codes for thoracic aorta repair surgery between 2000–2021 were identified. All patients were screened for prior PMR diagnosis. Patients with PMR and no signs of GCA were categorized as clinically isolated PMR. The medical records of all patients were manually reviewed, and pathologists re-examined all the aortic tissues. Results Of the 4621 patients with at least one CPT code for thoracic aorta repair surgery, 43 patients were diagnosed with clinically isolated PMR before the surgery. Detailed histopathological examination of the aortic tissues revealed active inflammation in 30/43 (70%) patients after a median (IQR) of 10.0 (4.7–13.3) years from the PMR diagnosis. When compared with aortic tissue from patients with a prior diagnosis of GCA, the aorta of patients with PMR had more severe inflammation (Grade 3: 15/30 [50%] vs 5/34 [15%], P = 0.002). Patients with PMR and thoracic aorta repair may experience a 40% increased risk of mortality compared with the general population, but this did not reach statistical significance (standardized mortality ratio: 1.40; 95% CI: 0.91–2.07). Conclusions Some patients with PMR have subclinical aortic inflammation that is detectable many years after initial diagnosis and may contribute to the development of aortic aneurysm.

IgG4-related disease (IgG4-RD) is a systemic immune-mediated fibroinflammatory disease whose pathomechanisms remain poorly understood. Here, we identified gene variants in familial IgG4-RD and determined their functional consequences. All 3 affected members of the family shared variants of the transcription factor IKAROS, encoded by IKZF1 , and the E3 ubiquitin ligase UBR4. The IKAROS variant increased binding to the FYN promoter, resulting in higher transcription of FYN in T cells. The UBR4 variant prevented the lysosomal degradation of the phosphatase CD45. In the presence of elevated FYN, CD45 functioned as a positive regulatory loop, lowering the threshold for T cell activation. Consequently, T cells from the affected family members were hyperresponsive to stimulation. When transduced with a low-avidity, autoreactive T cell receptor, their T cells responded to the autoantigenic peptide. In parallel, high expression of FYN in T cells biased their differentiation toward Th2 polarization by stabilizing the transcription factor JunB. This bias was consistent with the frequent atopic manifestations in patients with IgG4-RD, including the affected family members in the present study. Building on the functional consequences of these 2 variants, we propose a disease model that is not only instructive for IgG4-RD but also for atopic diseases and autoimmune diseases associated with an IKZF1 risk haplotype.

The human adult immune system maintains normal T cell counts and compensates for T cell loss throughout life, mainly through peripheral homeostatic proliferation after the ability of the thymus to generate new T cells has rapidly declined at adolescence. This process is mainly driven by STAT5-activating cytokines, most importantly IL-7, and is very effective in maintaining a large naive CD4 + T cell compartment into older age. Here, we describe that naive CD4 + T cells undergo adaptations to optimize IL-7 responses by upregulating the guanine-nucleotide exchange factor PREX1 in older age. PREX1 promotes nuclear translocation of phosphorylated STAT5, thereby supporting homeostatic proliferation in response to IL-7. Through the same mechanism, increased expression of PREX1 also biases naive cells to differentiate into effector T cells. These findings are consistent with the concept that primarily beneficial adaptations during aging, i.e., improved homeostasis, account for unfavorable functions of the aged immune system, in this case biased differentiation.

Objective To evaluate the incidence and outcomes of large artery (LA) involvement among patients with giant cell arteritis (GCA) and to compare LA involvement to non-GCA patients. Methods The study included Olmsted County, Minnesota, USA residents with incident GCA between 1950 and 2016 with follow-up through 31 December 2020, death or migration. A population-based age-matched/sex-matched comparator cohort without GCA was assembled. LA involvement included aortic aneurysm, dissection, stenosis in the aorta or its main branches diagnosed within 1 year prior to GCA or anytime afterwards. Cumulative incidence of LA involvement was estimated; Cox models were used. Results The GCA cohort included 289 patients (77% females, 81% temporal artery biopsy positive), 106 with LA involvement. Reported cumulative incidences of LA involvement in GCA at 15 years were 14.8%, 30.2% and 49.2% for 1950–1974, 1975–1999 and 2000–2016, respectively (HR 3.48, 95% CI 1.67 to 7.27 for 2000–2016 vs 1950–1974). GCA patients had higher risk for LA involvement compared with non-GCA (HR 3.22, 95% CI 1.83 to 5.68 adjusted for age, sex, comorbidities). Thoracic aortic aneurysms were increased in GCA versus non GCA (HR 13.46, 95% CI 1.78 to 101.98) but not abdominal (HR 1.08, 95% CI 0.33 to 3.55). All-cause mortality in GCA patients improved over time (HR 0.62, 95% CI 0.41 to 0.93 in 2000–2016 vs 1950–1974) but remained significantly elevated in those with LA involvement (HR 1.89, 95% CI 1.39 to 2.56). Conclusions LA involvement in GCA has increased over time. Patients with GCA have higher incidences of LA involvement compared with non-GCA including thoracic but not abdominal aneurysms. Mortality is increased in patients with GCA and LA involvement highlighting the need for continued surveillance.

Autoimmune vasculitis of the medium and large elastic arteries can cause blindness, stroke, aortic arch syndrome, and aortic aneurysm. The disease is often refractory to immunosuppressive therapy and progresses over decades as smoldering aortitis. How the granulomatous infiltrates in the vessel wall are maintained and how tissue-infiltrating T cells and macrophages are replenished are unknown. Single-cell and whole-tissue transcriptomic studies of immune cell populations in vasculitic arteries identified a CD4 + T cell population with stem cell–like features. CD4 + T cells supplying the tissue-infiltrating and tissue-damaging effector T cells survived in tertiary lymphoid structures around adventitial vasa vasora, expressed the transcription factor T cell factor 1 (TCF1), had high proliferative potential, and gave rise to two effector populations, Eomesodermin (EOMES) + cytotoxic T cells and B cell lymphoma 6 (BCL6) + T follicular helper-like cells. TCF1 hi CD4 + T cells expressing the interleukin 7 receptor (IL-7R) sustained vasculitis in serial transplantation experiments. Thus, TCF1 hi CD4 + T cells function as disease stem cells and promote chronicity and autonomy of autoimmune tissue inflammation. Remission-inducing therapies will require targeting stem-like CD4 + T cells instead of only effector T cells.