Fritz, Andrew J.

Cells establish and sustain structural and functional integrity of the genome to support cellular identity and prevent malignant transformation. In this review, we present a strategic overview of epigenetic regulatory mechanisms including histone modifications and higher order chromatin organization (HCO) that are perturbed in breast cancer onset and progression. Implications for dysfunctions that occur in hormone regulation, cell cycle control, and mitotic bookmarking in breast cancer are considered, with an emphasis on epithelial‐to‐mesenchymal transition and cancer stem cell activities. The architectural organization of regulatory machinery is addressed within the contexts of translating cancer‐compromised genomic organization to advances in breast cancer risk assessment, diagnosis, prognosis, and identification of novel therapeutic targets with high specificity and minimal off target effects.

AbstractThe RUNX1 transcription factor has recently been shown to be obligatory for normal development. RUNX1 controls the expression of genes essential for proper development in many cell lineages and tissues including blood, bone, cartilage, hair follicles, and mammary glands. Compromised RUNX1 regulation is associated with many cancers. In this review, we highlight evidence for RUNX1 control in both invertebrate and mammalian development and recent novel findings of perturbed RUNX1 control in breast cancer that has implications for other solid tumors. As RUNX1 is essential for definitive hematopoiesis, RUNX1 mutations in hematopoietic lineage cells have been implicated in the etiology of several leukemias. Studies of solid tumors have revealed a context‐dependent function for RUNX1 either as an oncogene or a tumor suppressor. These RUNX1 functions have been reported for breast, prostate, lung, and skin cancers that are related to cancer subtypes and different stages of tumor development. Growing evidence suggests that RUNX1 suppresses aggressiveness in most breast cancer subtypes particularly in the early stage of tumorigenesis. Several studies have identified RUNX1 suppression of the breast cancer epithelial‐to‐mesenchymal transition. Most recently, RUNX1 repression of cancer stem cells and tumorsphere formation was reported for breast cancer. It is anticipated that these new discoveries of the context‐dependent diversity of RUNX1 functions will lead to innovative therapeutic strategies for the intervention of cancer and other abnormalities of normal tissues.

Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women, and accounts for ~30% of new cancer cases and 15% of cancer‐related deaths. Tumor relapse and metastasis are primary factors contributing to breast cancer‐related deaths. Therefore, the challenge for breast cancer treatment is to sustain remission. A driving force behind tumor relapse is breast cancer heterogeneity (both intertumor, between different patients, and intratumor, within the same tumor). Understanding breast cancer heterogeneity is necessary to develop preventive interventions and targeted therapies. A recently emerging concept is that intratumor heterogeneity is driven by cancer stem cells (CSCs) that are capable of giving rise to a multitude of different cells within a tumor. Studies have highlighted linkage of CSC formation with epithelial‐to‐mesenchymal transition (EMT). In this review, we summarize the current understanding of breast cancer heterogeneity, links between EMT and CSCs, regulation of EMT by Runx transcription factors, and potential therapeutic strategies targeting these processes.

Fidelity of histone gene regulation, and ultimately of histone protein biosynthesis, is obligatory for packaging of newly replicated DNA into chromatin. Control of histone gene expression within the 3‐dimensional context of nuclear organization is reflected by two well documented observations. DNA replication‐dependent histone mRNAs are synthesized at specialized subnuclear domains designated histone locus bodies (HLBs), in response to activation of the growth factor dependent Cyclin E/CDK2/HINFP/NPAT pathway at the G1/S transition in mammalian cells. Complete loss of the histone gene regulatory factors HINFP or NPAT disrupts HLB integrity that is necessary for coordinate control of DNA replication and histone gene transcription. Here we review the molecular histone‐related requirements for G1/S‐phase progression during the cell cycle. Recently developed experimental strategies, now enable us to explore mechanisms involved in dynamic control of histone gene expression in the context of the temporal (cell cycle) and spatial (HLBs) remodeling of the histone gene loci.

Alterations in nuclear morphology are common in cancer progression. However, the degree to which gross morphological abnormalities translate into compromised higher‐order chromatin organization is poorly understood. To explore the functional links between gene expression and chromatin structure in breast cancer, we performed RNA‐seq gene expression analysis on the basal breast cancer progression model based on human MCF10A cells. Positional gene enrichment identified the major histone gene cluster at chromosome 6p22 as one of the most significantly upregulated (and not amplified) clusters of genes from the normal‐like MCF10A to premalignant MCF10AT1 and metastatic MCF10CA1a cells. This cluster is subdivided into three sub‐clusters of histone genes that are organized into hierarchical topologically associating domains (TADs). Interestingly, the sub‐clusters of histone genes are located at TAD boundaries and interact more frequently with each other than the regions in‐between them, suggesting that the histone sub‐clusters form an active chromatin hub. The anchor sites of loops within this hub are occupied by CTCF, a known chromatin organizer. These histone genes are transcribed and processed at a specific sub‐nuclear microenvironment termed the major histone locus body (HLB). While the overall chromatin structure of the major HLB is maintained across breast cancer progression, we detected alterations in its structure that may relate to gene expression. Importantly, breast tumor specimens also exhibit a coordinate pattern of upregulation across the major histone gene cluster. Our results provide a novel insight into the connection between the higher‐order chromatin organization of the major HLB and its regulation during breast cancer progression.

ABSTRACTThe organization of interphase chromosomes in chromosome territories (CTs) was first proposed more than one hundred years ago. The introduction of increasingly sophisticated microscopic and molecular techniques, now provide complementary strategies for studying CTs in greater depth than ever before. Here we provide an overview of these strategies and how they are being used to elucidate CT interactions and the role of these dynamically regulated, nuclear‐structure building blocks in directly supporting nuclear function in a physiologically responsive manner. J. Cell. Biochem. 117: 9–19, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Three‐dimensional organization of the chromatin has important roles in transcription, replication, DNA repair, and pathologic events such as translocations. There are two fundamental ways to study higher‐order chromatin organization: microscopic and molecular approaches. In this review, we briefly introduce the molecular approaches, focusing on chromosome conformation capture or “3C” technology and its derivatives, which can be used to probe chromatin folding at resolutions beyond that provided by microscopy techniques. We further discuss the different types of data generated by the 3C‐based methods and how they can be used to answer distinct biological questions. J. Cell. Physiol. 230: 31–35, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.