Citations

Objective Assess if velopharyngeal gap size during speech is associated with consonant accuracy and whether hypernasality severity and compensatory misarticulation errors (CMAs) mediate this relationship. Design Cross-sectional. Setting Metropolitan hospital. Participants Eighty-one patients undergoing assessment for velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI). Assessment(s) Each patient completed a preoperative magnetic resonance imaging protocol during sustained /i/ production and a perceptual speech evaluation. Velopharyngeal gap size was measured in millimeters. Hypernasality was rated using the Cleft Audit Protocol for Speech-Augmented-Americleft Modification. Percent consonants correct (PCC) and percent of CMAs used were derived from transcriptions of the American English sentence or phrase sample. Main Outcome Measure(s) A generalized structural equation model was used to examine whether velopharyngeal gap size is associated with PCC indirectly through hypernasality severity and CMA use. Results Larger velopharyngeal gap sizes were associated with more severe hypernasality ( P < .001), greater hypernasality severity was associated with increased CMA use ( P < .001), and greater CMA use was associated with lower PCC ( P < .001). Velopharyngeal gap size was not directly associated with PCC ( P = .400). However, the full indirect pathway from gap size to PCC through hypernasality severity and CMA use was significant ( P = .001); gap size was significantly associated with PCC when accounting for both direct and indirect pathways combined ( P = .005). Conclusions These findings suggest hypernasality severity is the key mediator between gap size and speech accuracy. Patients with more severe hypernasality may benefit from timely surgical remediation of VPI to increase overall consonant accuracy.

Objective To assess the relationship in ratings of velopharyngeal closure between connected speech and sustained speech, as visualized on nasopharyngoscopy. Design Prospective observational study. Setting Craniofacial clinics in the United States and Canada. Participants Fifty-two participants with velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI) who underwent nasopharyngoscopy and produced both connected speech and sustained speech of either /i/or /s/ during the procedure. Main outcome measure(s) Correlations and differences between connected speech and sustained speech for velopharyngeal closure percentage, velar movement, lateral pharyngeal wall movement, and velopharyngeal closure pattern. Results There were moderate to very strong correlations observed between connected speech and sustained /i/ for velopharyngeal closure percentage ( P < .01); extent of velar movement ( P < .01), and left ( P < .01) and right ( P < .01) lateral pharyngeal wall movement. Findings were similar between connected speech and sustained /s/. Differences between ratings made during connected and sustained speech were small: for velopharyngeal closure percentage, there was a 5% difference in the mean between connected speech and sustained /i/ (77.5% vs 72.5%) and a 7% difference for /s/ (79.3% vs 86.7%). Overall differences across ratings ranged from 2% to 12%. Closure pattern was rated the same for both connected speech and sustained /i/ in 90% of videos (n = 44/49; P = .38) and the same for connected speech and sustained /s/ in 95% of videos (n = 42/44; P = 1.00). Conclusions Ratings of velopharyngeal movement during nasopharyngoscopy are similar between connected speech and sustained /i/ and /s/ suggesting elicitation of only sustained /i/ and /s/ may be adequate in most cases when assessment of connected speech is not possible.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to compare the height of velopharyngeal (VP) closure in relation to the palatal plane between individuals with velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI) with or without cleft palate and individuals without cleft palate and with normal speech, considering the effects of age and sex. Method: Magnetic resonance imaging was used to analyze the height of VP closure in the midsagittal view during phonation of /i/ and /s/ sounds among 105 individuals with VPI and 45 individuals without cleft palate and normal speech. Results: Independent-samples t tests demonstrated that individuals with VPI display a significantly lower mean height of VP closure (3.7 mm) compared to individuals without cleft palate and normal speech during phonation of /i/ and /s/ sounds ( p < .001). Analysis of variance was used to evaluate the impact of age and sex on the height of VP closure. Significant differences were observed between the height of VP closure in individuals with VPI and those without cleft palate and normal speech across the age span during the production of /i/ and /s/ sounds. However, nonsignificant differences were found between the height of VP closure in males and females of the VPI group and those without cleft palate and normal speech during the production of these sounds. Conclusions: The results revealed the variations of the height of VP closure in relation to the palatal plane. These findings provide insights into the presurgical planning for individuals with VPI undergoing palatal surgeries, especially the location of pharyngeal flap insertion.

Background: Positioning the pharyngeal flap base high along the posterior pharyngeal wall is essential for optimizing speech outcomes. Objective data on where to place the flap base are lacking. Further, adenoid tissue can restrict cephalad positioning of the flap. This study aimed to improve the design of the pharyngeal flap by measuring the distance from the first cervical vertebrae (C1) to the palatal plane, and the adenoid depth in children undergoing evaluation for velopharyngeal insufficiency. Methods: This retrospective cross-sectional study analyzed magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of the velopharynx and measured the distance between C1 and the palatal plane, and the adenoid depth at the level of the palatal plane in millimeters. Results: Thirty-four patients met the inclusion criteria. The mean age at the time of MRI was 7.4 years (range: 3.9–11.9 y). The anterior tubercle of C1 was below the palatal plane in 97% (n = 33) of patients. On average, this landmark was 10.5 mm (SD = 5.0) below the palatal plane. Adenoid tissue was present at the level of the palatal plane in 91% (n = 31) of patients. Conclusions: Positioning the pharyngeal flap base at C1 is too low to aid with velopharyngeal closure. Further, adenoid tissue is frequently present at the level of velopharyngeal closure, limiting superior positioning of the pharyngeal flap base. When this occurs, surgeons should consider adenoidectomy before pharyngeal flap surgery. Preoperative MRI may be beneficial for planning pharyngeal flap positioning relative to C1 and assessing adenoid tissue at the palatal plane.

Objective To assess the quality of nasopharyngoscopy video recordings used for velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI) surgical planning and identify factors that limit evaluation of velopharyngeal closure. Design Prospective observational study. Setting Metropolitan-based hospitals with craniofacial clinics in the United States and Canada. Participants One-hundred and forty-two (142) patients with VPI across 10 hospitals. Assessment(s) Nasopharyngoscopy video recordings used for VPI surgical planning . Main Outcome Measure(s) Ratability of nasopharyngoscopy video recordings, with “ratable” defined as the video (1) visualized the velum, lateral pharyngeal wall, and posterior pharyngeal walls at some point during speech production and (2) contained an oral speech sample at the phrase level or above. Results One-hundred and forty-two (142) nasopharyngoscopy video recordings were obtained from patients undergoing VPI evaluation, of which 59.9% (n=85) were ratable. A multilevel logistic regression model was used to identify factors that influenced the quality of nasopharyngoscopy video recordings. Factors associated with unratable nasopharyngoscopy videos were age ( P =.030), sex ( P =.005*), type of scope camera used ( P =.039), presence of compensatory misarticulations ( P =.008), and a limited speech sample ( P =.040). Conclusions A substantial proportion of nasopharyngoscopy video recordings obtained during VPI evaluation are not sufficient for rating velopharyngeal closure. Lack of ratability could impact the surgery selected to treat VPI. Younger patients, those with limited speech samples, or patients with extensive compensatory articulations may be more successful in completing other VPI imaging techniques, such as videofluoroscopy or magnetic resonance imaging.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between perceptual ratings of hypernasality made during connected speech and velopharyngeal (VP) gap size measured in millimeters in the sagittal plane during sustained vowel production using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Method: A retrospective cross-sectional analysis was completed. A subgroup of 110 participants from another study with an M age of 10.1 years presenting for management of VP insufficiency was included. Perceptual ratings of hypernasality during connected speech and measurement of gap size during sustained /i/ production on MRI were performed by raters blinded to the participants' medical and surgical history. Results: There was a moderate-to-strong, positive correlation ( r = .61; p < .001) between hypernasality ratings and VP gap size measured on MRI using sustained /i/. The odds of a higher hypernasality rating increased as the gap size increased (odds ratio = 1.34; 95% CI [1.20, 1.49]; p < .001). The predicted probability for hypernasality ratings of none/minimal/mild steadily decreased as the gap size increased indicating that lower ratings of hypernasality were associated with smaller gap sizes. For the rating of “moderate” hypernasality, the predicted probability of the rating steadily increased up to 8 mm and then decreased as the gap size continued to increase. The predicted probability for a hypernasality rating of “severe” consistently increased as the gap size increased. Conclusions: Hypernasality ratings made at the connected speech level were significantly associated with VP gap size as measured during sustained vowel production. These findings suggest sustained vowel production elicited on MRI may adequately characterize VP gap size in the evaluation of VP insufficiency.

Introduction The levator veli palatini (LVP) muscle has two segments with distinct roles in velopharyngeal function. Previous research suggests longer extravelar segments with shorter intravelar segments may lead to a more advantageous mechanism for velopharyngeal closure. The purpose of this study was to examine whether the distribution of the LVP intravelar and extravelar segments differs between children with cleft palate with and without VPI and controls. Methods The study included 97 children: 37 with cleft palate +/- lip with VPI, 37 controls, and 19 with cleft palate with normal resonance. Measures included mean LVP length, mean extravelar LVP length, and intravelar LVP length. Results Overall mean LVP length was similar ( P = .267) between controls and children with cleft palate (with and without VPI). However, there was a significant difference ( P < .001) between group for both intravelar and extravelar LVP lengths: the intravelar segment was significantly longer in those with VPI compared to controls and children with cleft palate and normal resonance; and the extravelar segment was significantly shorter in those with VPI compared to controls and children with cleft palate and normal resonance. Conclusions Results from this study demonstrate a significant difference between the distribution of the functional segments of the LVP among children with VPI, with a more disadvantageous distribution of the muscle segments among those with VPI.

Objective To investigate whether flexible nasopharyngoscopy, when performed in addition to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), influences the type of surgery selected or success of surgery in patients with velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI). Design Cohort study. Setting A metropolitan children's hospital. Patients Patients with non-syndromic, repaired cleft palate presenting for management of VPI. Interventions MRI and nasopharyngoscopy or MRI alone for preoperative imaging of the velopharyngeal mechanism. Main Outcome Measures (1) Surgical selection and (2) resolution of hypernasality. All speech, MRI, and nasopharyngoscopy measurements were performed by raters blinded to patients’ medical and surgical history. Results Of the 25 patients referred for nasopharyngoscopy, 76% completed the exam. Of the 41 patients referred for MRI, the scan was successfully completed by 98% of patients. Completion of nasopharyngoscopy was significantly (p=0.01) lower than MRI. Surgical selection did not significantly differ (p=0.73) between the group receiving MRI and nasopharyngoscopy and the group receiving MRI alone, nor was there a significant difference between these groups in the proportion of patients achieving resolution of hypernasality postoperatively (p=0.63). Percent total velopharyngeal closure assessments on nasopharyngoscopy and MRI were strongly correlated (r=0.73). Conclusions In patients receiving MRI as part of their preoperative VPI evaluation, the addition of nasopharyngoscopy did not result in a difference in surgical selection or resolution of hypernasality. Routine inclusion of nasopharyngoscopy may not be necessary for the evaluation of velopharyngeal anatomy when MRI is available.

Background: Secondary Furlow (Furlow) and buccal myomucosal flaps (BMMF) treat velopharyngeal insufficiency by lengthening the palate and retropositioning the levator veli palatini muscles. The criteria for choosing one operation over the other remain unclear. Methods: A single-center retrospective cohort study was conducted. Thirty-two patients with nonsyndromic, repaired cleft palate were included. All patients underwent a Furlow or BMMF. Outcome measures included (1) resolution of hypernasality 12 months postoperatively, (2) degree of improvement of hypernasality severity; and (3) change in velar length, as measured on magnetic resonance imaging scans obtained preoperatively and 12 months postoperatively. All measures were performed by raters blinded to participants’ medical and surgical history. Results: Hypernasality was corrected to normal in 80% of the Furlow group and in 56% of the BMMF group. Patients receiving BMMF had more severe hypernasality during preoperative speech evaluation. Both groups had a median decrease of two scalar rating points for severity of hypernasality (P = 0.58). On postoperative magnetic resonance imaging, patients who underwent Furlow had a median increased velar length of 6.9 mm. Patients who received BMMF had a median increased velar length of 7.5 mm. There was no statistically significant difference between groups regarding increase in velar length (P = 0.95). Conclusions: Furlow and BMMF procedures increase velar length with favorable speech outcomes. The same degree of improvement for hypernasality was observed across groups, likely explained by the similar increase in velar length achieved. Anatomic changes in palate length and levator veli palatini retropositioning persist 1 year after surgery.

To determine the sensitivity and specificity of velar notching seen on nasopharyngoscopy for levator veli palatini (LVP) muscle discontinuity and anterior positioning. Nasopharyngoscopy and MRI of the velopharynx were performed on patients with VPI as part of their routine clinical care. Two speech-language pathologists independently evaluated nasopharyngoscopy studies for the presence or absence of velar notching. MRI was used to evaluate LVP muscle cohesiveness and position relative to the posterior hard palate. To determine the accuracy of velar notching for detecting LVP muscle discontinuity, sensitivity, specificity, and positive predictive value (PPV) were calculated. A craniofacial clinic at a large metropolitan hospital. Participants Thirty-seven patients who presented with hypernasality and/or audible nasal emission on speech evaluation and completed nasopharyngoscopy and velopharyngeal MRI study as part of their preoperative clinical evaluation. Among patients with partial or total LVP dehiscence on MRI, presence of a notch accurately identified discontinuity in the LVP 43% (95% CI 22-66%) of the time. In contrast, the absence of a notch accurately indicated LVP continuity 81% (95% CI 54-96%) of the time. The PPV for the presence of notching to identify a discontinuous LVP was 78% (95% CI 49-91%). The distance from the posterior edge of the hard palate to the LVP, known as effective velar length, was similar in patients with and without notching (median 9.8 mm vs 10.5 mm, P = 1.00). The observation of a velar notch on nasopharyngoscopy is not an accurate predictor of LVP muscle dehiscence or anterior positioning.