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Background Persistent infection rate after 2-stage reimplantation complicating elbow arthroplasty has been reported to be as high as 25%. The purposes of this retrospective study were to determine the infection eradication rates, complications and outcomes in a cohort of patients treated with two-stage reimplantation for deep periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) following total elbow arthroplasty (TEA) and to determine possible associated risk factors for treatment failure. Methods Between 2000 and 2017, 52 elbows underwent a two-stage reimplantation for PJI after TEA. There were 22 males and 30 females with a mean age of 61 (range, 25–82) years. The most common bacterium was Staphylococcus epidermidis (28 elbows). Mayo Elbow Performance Scores were calculated at the latest follow-up. Mean follow-up time was 6 years (range, 2–14 years). Results PJI was eradicated in 36 elbows (69%). The remaining 16 elbows were considered treatment failures secondary to recurrent infection. The risk of persistent infection was 3.3 times higher in elbows with retained cement (p 0.04), and 3.5 times higher when the infecting organism was Staphylococcus epidermidis (p 0.06). Conclusion Two-stage reimplantation for PJI after TEA was successful in eradicating deep infection in 69% of cases. The eradication of PJI after TEA still needs to be improved substantially.

AbstractIntroductionThe elbow is a rare location for primary and metastatic tumors in the upper extremity. The goal of reconstruction is to provide painless motion and stability for hand function. Total elbow arthroplasty (TEA) is commonly utilized, with either off‐the‐self components, modular segmental endoprosthesis, or allograft‐prosthesis composites (APC). The purpose of this study was to analyze and compare commonly utilized elbow reconstructions and report outcomes of (1) patient function and (2) implant survival and complications.MethodsWe reviewed 33 patients (18 females and 15 males) undergoing elbow arthroplasty for reconstruction of an underlying oncologic process including linked TEA (n = 22, 67%), APC (n = 9, 27%), and endoprosthesis (n = 2, 6%). The most common indication was metastatic disease (n = 17, 52%), with 24 patients (73%) presenting with a pathologic fracture.ResultsFive‐year implant survival was following elbow reconstruction was 88%. The mean most recent Mayo Elbow Performance Score and Musculoskeletal Tumor Society Score were 84 ± 18 and 78 ± 15%. Postoperative complications occurred in 15 elbows (45%), most commonly periprosthetic fracture (n = 5, 15%), leading to reoperation in six elbows (18%).ConclusionAlthough elbow arthroplasty is associated with a high incidence of complications, it provides a stable platform for upper extremity function in patients with oncologic processes of the elbow.

Background: Existing data on the epidemiology of shoulder arthroplasty are limited to future projections of incidence. However, the prevalence of shoulder arthroplasty (the number of individuals with a shoulder arthroplasty alive at a certain time and its implications for the burden of revision procedures) remains undetermined for the United States. Hence, the purpose of this study was to estimate the prevalence of shoulder arthroplasty in the United States. Methods: The National Inpatient Sample (NIS) was queried to count all patients who underwent total shoulder arthroplasty (TSA), including both anatomic and reverse TSA, and hemiarthroplasty between 1988 and 2017. The counting method was used to calculate the current prevalence of TSA and hemiarthroplasty using age and sex-specific population and mortality data from the U.S. Census Bureau. Results: In 2017, an estimated 823,361 patients (95% confidence interval [CI], 809,267 to 837,129 patients) were living in the United States with a shoulder replacement. This represents a prevalence of 0.258%, increasing markedly from 1995 (0.031%) and 2005 (0.083%). Female patients had a higher prevalence at 0.294% than male patients at 0.221%. Over 2% of people who were ≥80 years of age in the United States were living with a shoulder replacement. Furthermore, approximately 60% of patients living with a shoulder replacement had undergone the operation between 2013 and 2017. The incidence of revision shoulder arthroplasty is increasing on an annual basis, with 10,290 revision procedures performed in 2017, costing the U.S. health-care system $205 million. Conclusions: The prevalence of shoulder arthroplasty in the United States has markedly increased over time. This trend will likely continue given increasing life expectancies and exponentially increasing shoulder arthroplasty incidence rates. Most patients do not have long-term follow-up, and revision shoulder arthroplasty rates are increasing, a trend that is projected to continue. The data from our study highlight the enormous public health impact of shoulder replacement and shed light on a potentially increasing revision burden.

Background: With the expanding use of reverse shoulder arthroplasty (RSA) to treat various shoulder conditions, there has been a rise in the number of RSAs performed, especially in physically active patients. Limited information regarding sports after RSA is available to properly counsel patients on postoperative expectations. Purpose: To assess the rate of return to sports as well as the ability to return to the same level of preoperative intensity, frequency, and duration of sport after primary RSA. Study Design: Case series; Level of evidence, 4. Methods: This was a retrospective review of patients who underwent primary RSA at our institution between 2014 and 2016. Shoulder motion, Subjective Shoulder Value score, American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons score, pre- and postoperative sports activities, and barriers to return to sport were assessed in 109 patients after RSA (93 patients with unilateral RSA and 16 patients with bilateral RSA). The mean age at the time of surgery was 70 years (range, 34-86 years), with a mean follow-up of 3.9 years (range, 2-12 years). Results: The mean rate of return to sports was 70.1% (range, 0%-100%). There was no difference in return to sports between those with uni- and bilateral RSA ( P = .64). Fishing, swimming, elliptical/treadmill, and hunting were the most common sports after RSA with return rates of 91%, 73%, 86%, and 82% respectively. A majority of patients returned to the same level of preoperative intensity, frequency, and duration for all sports except for climbing and swimming. There was a lower mean rate of return for high-demand sports (62.9%) compared with low- and medium-demand sports (76.7%) ( P = .005). The most common reasons for inability to return to sports included limited motion, fear of injury, and weakness. Conclusion: Patients who had undergone primary uni- or bilateral RSA reported a 70.1% rate of return to sports with maintenance of the same level of intensity, duration, and frequency of preoperative sport participation. Rates of return to high-demand sports were lower than low- and medium-demand sports. Patients also had difficulty returning to overhead sports.

Aims The purpose of this study was to report bone adaptive changes after anatomical total shoulder arthroplasty (TSA) using a standard-length hydroxyapatite (HA)-coated humeral component, and to report on a computer-based analysis of radiographs to determine changes in peri-implant bone density objectively. Methods A total of 44 TSAs, performed between 2011 and 2014 using a cementless standard-length humeral component proximally coated with HA, were included. There were 23 males and 21 females with a mean age of 65 years (17 to 65). All shoulders had good quality radiographs at six weeks and five years postoperatively. Three observers graded bone adaptive changes. All radiographs were uploaded into a commercially available photographic software program. The grey value density of humeral radiological areas was corrected to the grey value density of the humeral component and compared over time. Results Stress shielding was graded as mild in 14 shoulders and moderate in three; the greater tuberosity was the predominant site for stress shielding. The mean metaphyseal and diaphyseal fill-fit ratios were 0.56 (SD 0.1) and 0.5 (SD 0.07), respectively. For shoulders with no radiologically visible stress shielding, the mean decrease in grey value in zones 1 and 7 was 20%, compared with 38% in shoulders with radiologically visible stress shielding. Conclusion The rate of moderate stress shielding was 7%, five years after implantation of a cementless standard-length HA-coated humeral component. Clinical observation of stress shielding identified on radiographs seems to represent a decrease in grey value of 25% or more. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2021;103-B(5):958–963.

AbstractExperimental analyses of posttraumatic knee arthrofibrosis utilize a rabbit model as a gold standard. However, a rodent model of arthrofibrosis offers many advantages including reduced cost and comparison with other models of organ fibrosis. This study aimed to characterize the biomechanical, histological, and molecular features of a novel posttraumatic model of arthrofibrosis in rats. Forty eight rats were divided into two equal groups. An immobilization procedure was performed on the right hind limbs of experimental rats. One group was immobilized for 4 weeks and the other for 8 weeks. Both groups were remobilized for 4 weeks. Limbs were studied biomechanically via assessment of torque versus degree of extension, histologically via whole knee specimen, and molecularly via gene expression of posterior capsular tissues. Significant differences were observed between experimental and control limbs at 4 N‐cm of torque in the 4‐week (knee extension: 115° ± 8° vs. 169° ± 17°, respectively; p = 0.007) and 8‐week immobilization groups (knee extension: 99° ± 12° vs. 174° ± 9°, respectively; p = 0.008). Histologically, in each group experimental limbs demonstrated increased posterior capsular thickness and total area of tissue when compared to control limbs (p < 0.05). Gene expression values evaluated in each group were comparable. This study presents a novel rat model of arthrofibrosis with severe and persistent knee contractures demonstrated biomechanically and histologically. Statement of clinical significance: Arthrofibrosis is a common complication following contemporary total knee arthroplasties. The proposed model is reproducible, cost‐effective, and can be employed for translational investigations studying the pathogenesis of arthrofibrosis and efficacy of neoadjuvant pharmacologic agents.

Background: Glenoid component loosening is a primary cause of failure of anatomical total shoulder arthroplasty (TSA) and is commonly associated with glenoid bone loss. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the outcome and survival following revision to a reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (RSA) for the treatment of loosening of a polyethylene cemented glenoid component in the setting of failed TSA. Methods: Between 2010 and 2017, 151 shoulders underwent revision to RSA for the treatment of loosening of an anatomical polyethylene glenoid component. Shoulders with staged reconstruction for the treatment of infection were excluded. One hundred and twenty-seven patients (67 women and 60 men) had a single-stage reconstruction and were available for follow-up. The mean age at the time of surgery was 70 years (range, 41 to 93 years). In all cases, the humeral component was revised and a standard glenoid baseplate was utilized. Bone graft was used at the discretion of the treating surgeon. Medical records and radiographs were reviewed to collect demographic, intraoperative, and postoperative data; to quantify glenoid bone loss; and to determine the radiographic outcome. The mean duration of follow-up was 35 months (range, 24 to 84 months). Results: Revision to RSA resulted in significant improvements in terms of pain and motion. Sixteen shoulders (13%) underwent revision surgery for the treatment of baseplate loosening. Radiographic baseplate loosening was present in 6 additional shoulders (overall rate of baseplate loosening, 17%). Intraoperative fracture or fragmentation of the greater tuberosity occurred in 30 shoulders (24%). Other reoperations included resection for deep infection (3 shoulders), arthroscopic biopsies for unexplained persistent pain (2 shoulders), humeral tray exchange for dislocation (2 shoulders), revision for humeral loosening (1 shoulder), irrigation and debridement for hematoma (1 shoulder), and internal fixation of periprosthetic fracture (1 shoulder) (overall reoperation rate, 20%). Among shoulders with surviving implants at the time of the most recent follow-up, pain was rated as none or mild in 83 shoulders (65.4%) and the average active elevation and external rotation were 132° and 38°, respectively. With the numbers available, no risk factors for failure could be identified. Conclusions: Revision RSA for the treatment of loosening of an anatomical polyethylene component was associated with a 17% glenoid mechanical failure rate. Although this procedure resulted in improvements in terms of pain and function, it was not universally successful and thus needs further refinement in order to improve outcomes. Level of Evidence: Therapeutic Level IV . See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Purpose To analyze the available literature pertaining to the indications, outcomes, and complications of both microfracture (MFX) and simple debridement for capitellar osteochondritis dissecans (OCD). Methods A comprehensive literature review was conducted according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐analyses (PRISMA) criteria. Studies were included if they evaluated OCD of the capitellum that underwent either arthroscopic debridement (AD) or MFX. The risk of bias was assessed using the Methodological Index for Non‐randomized Studies (MINORS) scale. Patient demographic characteristics, imaging findings, return‐to‐sport rates, patient‐reported outcomes, range of motion (ROM), complications, failures, and reoperations were recorded. Results Eleven studies with 327 patients (332 elbows) met the inclusion criteria. Methodological Index for Non‐randomized Studies (MINORS) scores ranged from 63% to 75% and showed considerable heterogeneity. Both AD and MFX showed improvement in patient outcome scores, ROM, and return to play, although the data precluded relative conclusions. Improvement in motion after MFX ranged from 4.9° to 5° of flexion, 5° to 22.6° of extension, 1° to 2° of pronation, and 0.5° to 2° of supination, whereas after AD, it ranged from –4° to 6° of flexion and –0.4° to 14° of extension, with prono‐supination noted in only 1 study. The rate of return to play at a similar level of preinjury athletic competition ranged from 55% to 75% after MFX and from 40% to 100% after AD. Lesion location was discussed in only 1 study. Postoperative imaging trended toward early degenerative changes, most commonly of the radial head. Complications were only reported in 1 MFX study; in all cases, the complication was transient ulnar nerve neurapraxia. Reoperation rates ranged from 0% to 10%, and reoperation was most commonly performed to address radial head enlargement. Five studies reported no reoperations. Conclusions Both AD and MFX for capitellar OCD appear to yield excellent improvements in pain, ROM, patient outcome scores, and return to sport. Given that comparable mid‐term outcomes can be achieved with debridement alone, without the use of MFX, similarly to recent prospective studies in the knee, AD alone may be a reasonable approach to relatively small OCD defects. Level of Evidence Level IV, systematic review of studies, all Level IV evidence.

Abstract Purpose The teres minor is particularly important for activities that require external rotation in abduction in the settings of both rotator cuff tears and reverse shoulder arthroplasty. This study sought to assess the incidence of teres minor fatty infiltration in a large cohort of consecutive patients evaluated with shoulder MRI for shoulder pain and to identify all associated pathologies in an effort to determine the various potential etiologies of teres minor involvement. Methods A retrospective review of 7,376 non‐contrast shoulder MRI studies performed between 2010 and 2015 were specifically evaluated for teres minor fatty infiltration. Studies were reviewed by two fellowship trained musculoskeletal radiologists. Muscle atrophy was graded on a 3‐point scale according to Fuchs and Gerber. The remaining rotator cuff tendons and muscles, biceps tendon, labrum, and joint surfaces were assessed on MRI as well. Results In this series, 209 (2.8%) shoulders were noted to have fatty infiltration of the teres minor. The rate of isolated fatty infiltration of the teres minor was 0.4%. Concomitant deltoid muscle atrophy was common, and occurred in 68% of the shoulders with fatty infiltration of the teres minor. Tearing of the teres minor tendon was extremely rare. Conclusion Fatty infiltration of the teres minor can occur in isolation, be associated with deltoid muscle atrophy only, or occur in the setting of rotator cuff full tears. Thus, fatty infiltration of the teres minor may be related to a neurologic process or disuse. Further long term longitudinal studies are necessary to be elucidate the etiologies. Level of Evidence Level IV.