Citations

Abstract After acute estrogen withdrawal in postmenopausal women, administration of anakinra or etanercept, specific blockers of IL-1 and TNF-α, respectively, reduced the rise in bone resorption markers to about one half of that in controls. This is consistent with an important role for these immune cytokines in mediating the effect of estrogen deficiency on bone. Introduction: Studies in rodents have implicated increased production of interleukin (IL)-1β and TNF-α as mediators of bone loss after ovariectomy, but their roles are unclear in humans whose immune system differs markedly from that of rodents. Materials and Methods: We administered transdermal estradiol, 0.1 mg/d, for 60 days to 42 early postmenopausal women. Estrogen treatment was discontinued, and subjects were randomly assigned to intervention groups receiving 3 wk of injections with 0.9% saline, anakinra 100 mg/d, or etanercept 25 mg/twice weekly. Bone turnover was assessed by measuring serum carboxyl-terminal telopeptide of type 1 collagen (CTX) and amino-terminal telopeptide of type 1 collagen (NTX), markers for bone resorption, and serum amino-terminal propeptide of type 1 collagen (P1NP), a marker for bone formation. Results were expressed as percent change in markers from baseline (last 2 days of estrogen treatment and days 20 and 21 of intervention). Results: The percent changes from baseline during intervention for serum CTX, urine NTX, and serum PINP, respectively, were 43.3 ± 8.0%, 12.0 ± 7.1%, and −41.0 ± 2.5% for the control group; 25.9 ± 6.3%, 9.5 ± 4.0%, and −37.8 ± 3.0% for the anakinra group; and 21.7 ± 5.0%, 0.32 ± 3.82%, and −34.5 ± 3.9% for the etanercept group. Compared with the control group, the blunting of the increase in serum CTX fell just below the level of significance (p = 0.10) after anakinra treatment, whereas the blunting of the increase in serum CTX (p = 0.034) and in urine NTX (p = 0.048) were significant after etanercept treatment. Other changes were not significant. Conclusions: The data are consistent with a role for TNF-α, and possibly for IL-1β, in mediating increased bone resorption during estrogen deficiency in women. Although either cytokine blocker reduced serum CTX by about one half, the effect of combined blockade could not be tested because of concerns about toxicity. The data do not exclude direct or indirect contributory roles for RANKL or for other cytokines.

Although osteoporosis has traditionally been considered a disease of women, men also incur substantial bone loss with aging, and elderly men have age-specific hip fracture incidence rates and vertebral fracture prevalence rates that are at least half those in women. Early postmenopausal bone loss (which results in the syndrome of type I osteoporosis) is due to the direct skeletal consequences of estrogen deficiency, manifested by an increase in bone resorption without an adequate increase in bone formation. Recent evidence indicates that even late postmenopausal bone loss (type II or ‘senile’ osteoporosis) in women may be due to estrogen deficiency. In particular, the late consequences of estrogen deficiency in elderly women result in abnormalities in calcium homeostasis and increases in parathyroid hormone secretion, leading to increased bone resorption and bone loss. The etiology of bone loss in aging men has remained relatively unclear. Recent evidence from a male deficient in estrogen receptor-alpha and in two males with aromatase deficiency indicate that estrogen may play a significant role in bone metabolism in men. Moreover, several large epidemiologic studies have found that bone mineral density correlates better with serum estrogen than testosterone in aging men. Thus estrogen deficiency may lead to bone loss in men.

Abstract In recent years, we have come to appreciate that the close association between bone and vasculature plays a pivotal role in the regulation of bone remodeling and fracture repair. In 2001, Hauge et al. characterized a specialized vascular structure, the bone remodeling compartment (BRC), and showed that the outer lining of this compartment was made up of flattened cells, displaying all the characteristics of lining cells in bone. A decrease in bone turnover leads to a decrease in surfaces covered with remodeling compartments, whereas increased turnover causes an increase. Immunoreactivity for all major osteotropic growth factors and cytokines including osteoprotegerin (OPG) and RANKL has been shown in the cells lining the BRC, which makes the BRC the structure of choice for coupling between resorption and formation. The secretion of these factors inside a confined space separated from the bone marrow would facilitate local regulation of the remodeling process without interference from growth factors secreted by blood cells in the marrow space. The BRC creates an environment where cells inside the structure are exposed to denuded bone, which may enable direct cellular interactions with integrins and other matrix factors known to regulate osteoclast/osteoblast activity. However, the denuded bone surface inside the BRC also constitutes an ideal environment for the seeding of bone metastases, known to have high affinity for bone matrix. Reduction in BRC space brought about by antiresorptive therapies such as bisphosphonates reduce the number of skeletal events in advanced cancer, whereas an increase in BRC space induced by remodeling activators like PTH may increase the bone metastatic burden. The BRC has only been characterized in detail in trabecular bone; there is, however, evidence that a similar structure may exist in cortical bone, but further characterization is needed.

Abstract A leading theory suggests that decreasing activity and muscle mass is the main cause of age-related bone loss. However, in a population-based study of 375 women and 325 men (age, 21–97 years), we failed to find a close correspondence between these variables and changes in bone strength with aging. Introduction: It has been suggested that bone strength is homeostatically adapted to habitual skeletal loading conditions and that bone loss could, therefore, result simply from age-related reductions in physical activity and muscle mass, but this notion has not been explored in detail. Materials and Methods: In a stratified random sample of Rochester, MN, women and men 21–97 years of age, indices of bone strength, flexural rigidity (EI), and axial rigidity (EA) were estimated from central QCT measurements at the femoral neck and lumbar spine and pQCT measurements at the ultradistal radius, whereas habitual skeletal loading was assessed using lean body mass, total skeletal muscle mass (TSM), body weight, and physical activity. Using regression analysis, we tested the hypothesis (Ho) that bone strength per unit load did not vary with age. Results and Conclusions: In these cross-sectional data, the null hypothesis of no age-related change was rejected in 72% of the strength-to-load ratios tested. For example, the ratio of femoral neck EI to TSM increased by 0.19%/year in women (p =0.008) and by 0.49%/year in men (p < 0.001). There was no close correspondence between changes in habitual load and changes in bone strength, nor any consistent pattern. Moreover, interindividual variation in the strength-to-load ratios was substantial. These data suggest that the notion of reduced skeletal loading as the primary basis for age-related bone loss is oversimplified.

Abstract We used QCT scans obtained in 687 men and women, 21–97 years of age, to estimate the factor of risk for vertebral fracture, Φvert, defined as the ratio of spinal loading to vertebral strength. With age, vertebral strength declined and Φvert increased significantly more in women than men. Age- and sex-specific differences in Φvert closely resembled previously reported vertebral fracture incidence. Introduction: Despite the high prevalence of vertebral fractures, little is known about the interaction between spinal loading and vertebral fragility. Materials and Methods: We assessed the ratio of spinal loading to vertebral strength (i.e., the factor of risk, Φvert) in an age- and sex-stratified population-based sample of 700 women and men 21–97 years of age. We measured volumetric BMD (vBMD, mg/cm3) and cross-sectional area (CSA, cm2) of the midvertebral bodies of L1–L3 using QCT and computed vertebral compressive strength from these data using engineering beam theory. A biomechanical model of the trunk was used to estimate compressive forces applied to the L3 vertebral body during standing, bending forward, and bending forward while lifting 10 kg. The factor of risk for fracture, Φvert, was computed as the ratio of spinal compressive force to vertebral strength for each activity. Results: Men had a higher vertebral strength at all ages, largely because of their greater CSA. Whereas both sexes exhibited a marked decline in vertebral compressive strength with age (p < 0.001), the decline was greater in women than men (−43% versus −31%, p = 0.008). Compressive forces on L3 were greater in men than women, because of their greater body weight and height. For both sexes, forces during bending and lifting were 8-fold higher than those experienced during upright standing. For all activities, Φvert increased with age, but significantly more so in women than men (p < 0.001). For bending and lifting, Φvert-bending exceeded 1.0 in 30% of women and 12% of men ≥50 years of age, values that are similar to the reported frequency of vertebral fracture. Conclusion: These findings illustrate potential mechanisms underlying vertebral fractures and provide strong rationale for further evaluation of this QCT-based biomechanical approach for assessment of fracture risk.

Abstract The NOF cost-effectiveness model, based on clinical risk factors and femoral neck aBMD, predicted overall fracture risk in a cohort of postmenopausal women followed for up to 22 years. Introduction: To assess the ability of a statistical model to predict long-term fracture risk for a population of postmenopausal women, we compared observed fractures to those predicted by the National Osteoporosis Foundation's (NOF) cost-effectiveness model. Materials and Methods: In this population-based study, 393 postmenopausal Rochester, MN, women had baseline measurements of femoral neck areal BMD (aBMD) and assessment of the clinical risk factors (personal fracture history, family history of osteoporotic fracture, low body weight, and smoking status) that were included in the NOF model. They were then followed prospectively for up to 22 years. Fractures were ascertained by periodic interview and review of community medical records. Standardized incidence ratios (SIRs) compared observed fractures to predicted numbers. Results: During 4782 person-years of follow-up, 212 women experienced 503 fractures, two-thirds of which were caused by moderate trauma. When undiagnosed (incidentally noted) vertebral and rib fractures were excluded, there was general concordance between observed and predicted fractures of the hip (SIR, 0.78; 95% CI, 0.56-1.01), distal forearm (SIR, 1.22; 95% CI, 0.86-1.68), spine (SIR, 0.76; 95% CI, 0.50-1.11), and all other sites combined (SIR, 1.18; 95% CI, 0.97-1.42). Fracture prediction by the NOF model was about as good after 10 years as it was earlier during follow-up. Conclusions: This study validates the ability of a statistical model based on femoral neck aBMD and common clinical risk factors to predict the actual occurrence of fractures in a cohort of postmenopausal white women.

Abstract In a population-based, cross-sectional study, we related age-associated changes in vBMD and in bone structural parameters to circulating bioavailable estradiol and testosterone levels in men. Associations between these bone mass/structural parameters and sex steroid levels were progressively stronger with age. Our previously postulated “threshold” for skeletal estrogen deficiency was most evident at cortical sites. Introduction: Serum sex steroids, particularly estrogen levels, are associated with bone mass in men, and previous work has suggested that there may be a “threshold” bioavailable estradiol (bio E2) level below which the male skeleton becomes estrogen deficient. However, previous studies addressing this issue have exclusively used DXA, which cannot separate trabecular from cortical bone or provide information on bone geometry or structure. Materials and Methods: In an age-stratified population sample of 314 men (age, 22-91 years), we assessed volumetric BMD (vBMD) and bone geometry by QCT at the lumbar spine, femoral neck, distal radius, and distal tibia and related these to circulating bio E2 and bio testosterone (T) levels. Results: Compared with young men (age, 20-39 years), middle-aged men (age, 40-59 years) had significantly lower bio T (−26%, p < 0.001) and bio E2 (−9%, p = 0.038) levels, and these decreases were even greater in the elderly men (age ≥ 60 years, −60% and −38% for bio T and bio E2, respectively, p < 0.001 for both). Reflecting their intact gonadal status, vBMD/structural parameters were not related to sex steroid levels in young men, whereas bio E2 levels were associated consistently with vBMD and variably with bone geometric parameters in the elderly men; middle-aged men showed associations with bio E2 and bio T at some sites. At all cortical sites, vBMD was associated with bio E2 at low (<30 pM, R = 0.27-0.41, p < 0.05-0.001) but not high (≥30 pM, R = −0.003 to 0.12, p = not significant) levels; no such differences were evident at trabecular sites. Conclusions: In men, bio E2 is the most consistent predictor of vBMD and some bone geometric variables as assessed by QCT. We also extend our previous findings on a possible “threshold” for skeletal estrogen deficiency by showing that this is most evident for cortical sites.