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Background We have previously shown that increased caveolin‐1 expression impairs leptin‐dependent activation of cellular signaling pathways and may be responsible for attenuating leptin‐mediated increases in adiponectin expression in obesity. Further, insulin and leptin cellular signaling mechanisms are closely related such that molecules known to impair insulin signaling also alter leptin signaling. Conversely, known insulin‐sensitizing drugs may improve leptin‐signaling via reducing caveolin‐1 expression. We therefore tested the hypothesis that insulin‐sensitizing drugs decrease caveolin‐1 expression. Methods We used an in‐vitro approach to examine the effects of different insulin‐sensitizing drugs on caveolin‐1 expression. Human white preadipocytes were cultured to confluence and differentiated for 15 days. After differentiation, cells were then treated with increasing concentrations of pioglitazone (5–30 μM), troglitazone (10–30 μM), metformin (1–5 mM), or glimepiride (20–100 μM) for 24 hours. Caveolin‐1 protein expression was determined by Western blot analysis. Results Among the insulin‐sensitizers used in our experiment, only treatment with increasing concentrations of metformin resulted in a dose‐dependent decease in caveolin‐1 expression (P =0.007). Treatment with increasing concentration of troglitazone upregulated caveolin‐1 expression (p=0.005), while pioglitazone (p=0.5020) and glimepiride (p=0.0965) had no effect of caveolin‐1 protein expression. Conclusions Metformin reduces caveolin‐1 expression in differentiated human white preadipocytes. In obesity, caveolin‐1 expression is increased which may contribute to impaired leptin signaling. Therefore, metformin may be used to decrease caveolin‐1 expression and consequently improve leptin signaling and leptin‐dependent increases in adiponectin expression in obese individuals. Support or Funding Information Michaela Pfeifer was supported by the American Physiological Society Stride Summer Undergraduate Research Fellowship NHLBI 1 R25 HL115473‐01; Prachi Singh was supported by the American Heart Association Scientist Development Grant 11SDG7260046.

Background Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is characterized by repetitive intermittent hypoxia and reoxygenation during sleep, and is a risk factor for cardiometabolic diseases including hypertension and diabetes. The renin‐angiotensin system (RAS) is an important cardiovascular and metabolic regulator playing key roles via angiotensin peptides. Recent studies demonstrate that all components of the RAS, including enzymes responsible for AngII generation, such as angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) and chymase, are present in adipose tissue. Furthermore adipose tissue significantly contributes to systemic levels of AngII, thereby potentiating development of hypertension in obesity. Given that OSA patients are mostly obese, the localized effects of RAS in adipose tissue are likely an important mediator of OSA‐related hypertension. This study sought to investigate the effects of intermittent hypoxia (IH), a hallmark of OSA, on Ang II generation pathways in preadipocytes. Methods/Results RAS plays an important role in adipose tissue via its action on preadipocytes. Therefore, we examined the effects of IH in primary cultures of human white preadipocytes (HWP). HWP cells were exposed to repeated cycles of 30 min‐21% O 2 (normoxic) and 30 min‐1% O 2 (hypoxic) at 37°C for 24 hours. Cells grown in continuous normoxic conditions were used as controls. mRNA and protein expression of ACE, chymase, renin, AT1, and AT2 receptors were investigated by semi‐quantitative RT‐PCR and Western blot, respectively. Ang II secretion was examined by enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay in condition medium. Results IH upregulated ACE (P=0.04) and chymase (P=0.05) expression while the expression of renin (P=0.94), AT1R (P=0.30), and AT2R (P=0.58) receptors did not change in HWP. Additionally, IH increased Ang II secretion in conditioned media (P=0.01). Conclusions This is the first study to demonstrate intermittent hypoxia‐mediated upregulation of Ang II generating enzymes ACE and chymase, along with increased AngII secretion in HWP. Together, our data strongly support the role of IH in upregulating RAS via increases in AngII. These studies suggest a role for adipose tissue and RAS in OSA related pathophysiology. Support or Funding Information NIH R01 grant (#HL65176); Becari C. is supported by grant from CNPq‐Brazil (# 203802/2014‐4).

BACKGROUND Leptin is an adipokine with a central role in energy homeostasis and appetite regulation. Increases in leptin suppress appetite, while decreases in leptin increase appetite and may consequently cause weight gain. Patients with established obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) have been shown to have elevated leptin. Also, newly diagnosed OSA patients have a history of significant recent weight gain. Repetitive nocturnal intermittent hypoxia has been implicated in OSA pathophysiology and in increases in leptin. However, the factors contributing to weight gain in OSA are not completely understood. In contrast to the history of weight gain in OSA subjects, animal models of intermittent hypoxia (IH) are associated with weight loss along with increases in leptin. Furthermore, acute altitude dependent hypoxia in humans has also been associated with loss of appetite and increases in leptin. We postulated that the duration of IH may be important in defining the nature of effects on leptin. In this study we sought to examine the interactions between IH and leptin secretion, comparing acute versus chronic exposure to IH. We tested the hypothesis that although acute IH increases leptin secretion and likely suppresses appetite, repeated chronic exposure to IH will decrease leptin secretion, and thereby may increase appetite and predispose individuals such as patients with OSA to weight gain. METHODS We used an in‐vitro approach to examine the acute effects of IH (24 cycles of 30 min 0.1% O 2 followed by 30 min exposure to 21% O 2 ) in differentiated human white preadipocytes. Cells grown in normoxic conditions and continuous hypoxia were controls for these experiments. For chronic treatment, cells were exposed to 9 cycles of IH each day for 7 days. Leptin secretion was measured in 48 h conditioned media by ELISA. RESULTS Acute 24 hour exposure to IH or sustained hypoxia increased leptin secretion (p = 0.013). However, chronic 7 day exposure of differentiated human white preadipocytes caused decreases in leptin secretion (p = 0.02). CONCLUSION Acute intermittent hypoxia elicits increases in leptin secretion. Conversely, chronic IH decreases leptin secretion, suggesting a mechanism for development of obesity in the early stages of OSA. We speculate that decreased leptin, as a consequence of chronic IH, would result in increased appetite and hence weight gain. As obesity progresses, leptin levels likely rise secondary to the increase in body fat. Elevated leptin levels in patients with longstanding OSA may be indicative of increased fat mass and not a consequence of IH‐mediated effects on adipocytes. Support or Funding Information Christiane Becari was supported by a grant from CNPq Brazil (# 203802/2014‐4); Prachi Singh was supported by AHA scientist development grant (11SDG7260046).

Background Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) patients have elevated levels of plasma leptin and are exposed to repeated nocturnal intermittent hypoxia (IH). Leptin induces increased adiponectin expression, suggesting that adiponectin should be increased in OSA. However, levels of plasma adiponectin, an anti‐atherogenic and insulin‐sensitizing adipokine, are inconsistent in OSA, and adiponectin levels are often low. Both increases in leptin and decreases in adiponectin may contribute to increased cardiometabolic risk in OSA. In this study we sought to examine the interactions between IH, leptin, and adiponectin. Using an in‐vitro approach in differentiated human white preadipocytes (dHWP), we tested the hypothesis that adiponectin expression in response to acute IH‐mediated increases in leptin may be modulated in the presence of hypoxia. Methods dHWP were exposed to 24 cycles of IH (30 min 0.1% O2 followed by 30 min exposure to 21% O2), continuous hypoxia (0.1% O2) or continuous normoxia (21% O2, control). Secretion of leptin and adiponectin in the 24h conditioned media was determined by ELISA and intracellular changes in adiponectin were determined by Western blot analysis. Results We show that acute 24 hour exposure to IH or sustained hypoxia increased leptin secretion (p = 0.013) but did not alter adiponectin secretion (p = 0.48). In fact, the intracellular expression of adiponectin actually decreased during the acute exposure to both IH and to continuous hypoxia (p = 0.02). Also, while leptin increased intracellular adiponectin expression in normoxic conditions (p = 0.03), it was unable to do so in the presence of IH and hypoxia (p = 0.36). Conclusions Acute IH and continuous hypoxia mediate increases in leptin, but not in adiponectin secretion. Furthermore, although leptin increases adiponectin in normoxic conditions, IH and continuous hypoxia cause decreases in intra‐cellular adiponectin expression and also attenuate leptin‐mediated increases in adiponectin expression. These hypoxia‐effects on adiponectin expression may help explain the low adiponectin levels in OSA, which may contribute to increased cardiovascular and diabetes risk. Support or Funding Information Christiane Becari was supported by a grant from CNPq Brazil (# 203802/2014‐4); Michaela Pfeifer was supported by the APS STRIDE summer undergraduate research fellowship (NHLBI 1R25HL115473‐01); Prachi Singh was supported by AHA scientist development grant 11SDG7260046.

Background Decreases in estrogen are shown to increase body fat in men. However, obese men have high levels of estrogen and the effects of weight gain on estrogen have not been previously investigated. The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between regional fat depots and estrogen during modest weight in healthy men. Methods We investigated the effects of overfeeding in 25 healthy men (30 ± 7 years, 24.7 ± 3.1 kg/m 2 ). Changes in regional fat depot during weight gain were assessed using dual‐energy X‐ray absorptiometry and abdominal computed tomography scans. Participants gained approximately 5% body weight in 8 weeks. Estrone (E1), 17β‐estradiol (E2) and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) were measured at baseline and after weight gain. Results Overfeeding was accompanied by 3.9 ± 1.3 kg weight gain. These increases in weight resulted from increases in total body fat mass (18.3 ± 8.5 vs. 21.7 ± 8.8 kg, p<0.001) while the fat free mass did not change (58.4 ± 8.6 vs. 58.9 ± 8.7 kg, p=0.15). E1 (32.28 ± 14.25 vs. 33.44 ± 12.29 pg/mL, p=0.56) and E2 (25.04 ± 8.3 vs. 26.52 ± 7.8 pg/mL, p=0.28) did not change after weight gain. However, weight gain resulted in decreased SHBG (22.8 ± 10.5 vs. 20.8 ± 11.1 nmol/l, p=0.036) and increased E2/SHBG ratio (1.4 ± 1.0 vs 1.63 ± 1.0, p=0.027). The changes in E2/SHBG ratio, a surrogate marker of bioavailable E2, was positively associated with increases in abdominal fat mass (p=0.048, rho=0.39) and increases in visceral fat mass (p=0.049, rho=0.39). Conclusion Modest weight gain in healthy men does not alter circulating E1 and E2 levels. However weight gain results in decreased SHBG and increased free E2 (E2/SHBG ratio). The increased E2/SHBG ratio suggesting a pro‐estrogen effect is associated with increases in visceral fat mass during weight gain. Our study therefore suggests a complex relationship between abdominal fat gain and free E2 in men which may conceivably predispose to feminizing characteristics in obese men. Support or Funding Information PS is supported by AHA Grant 11SDG7260046 and NIH grant DK81014. NC is supported by AHA grant AHA 13POST16420009. MDJ is supported by NIH grants DK45343 and DK40484. VKS is supported by NIH Grants HL73211, and DK81014. This study was made possible by a grant from NCRR (1UL1 RR024150).

Background Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) increases the risk for metabolic and cardiovascular disease. Telomere shortening has been linked to hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular diseases such as stroke and myocardial infarction. Because these conditions are highly prevalent in sleep apnea, we hypothesized that telomere length (TL) would be reduced in patients with OSA. Methods Genomic DNA was isolated from circulating leukocytes in 176 subjects (42.8 ± 13.8 years, 22.7 % women) who had undergone overnight polysomnographic evaluation. Of these individuals, 92 subjects had an Apnea Hypopnea Index (AHI) >5 events/hour and were classified as OSA patients. TL was measured using a quantitative PCR where a telomere to single copy gene ratio is determined and represented as number of base pairs (bp). The effect of OSA on TL was determined by comparing a control group (no OSA) (AHI<5, n=92) with patients with mild OSA (≥ 5 AHI <15, n=25), and those with moderate to severe OSA (AHI ≥15, n=59) in unadjusted and age‐adjusted models. Results Compared to control subjects, mild and moderate to severe OSA subjects were older: 48.9 ± 11.2 vs. 36.0 ± 11.2 years (p<0.001) and 50.8 ± 13.1 vs. 36.0 ± 11.2 years (p<0.001), respectively. Statistical models examining the effects of OSA severity on TL showed a J‐shaped curve : longer TL in moderate to severe OSA (4867 ± 221 bp) and controls (4820 ± 160 bp), and the shortest TL in mild OSA (4742 ± 155 bp). The mean TL in moderate to severe OSA was significantly longer than in mild OSA (p=0.0048). These effects were more pronounced after adjustment for age, when we observed significant differences in mean TL between moderate to severe OSA and mild OSA (p=0.0036) and between moderate to severe OSA and the control group (p=0.0379) (). However, the mean TL between control subjects and subjects with mild OSA was not different. Conclusion Moderate to severe OSA patients had longer TL compared with mild OSA and control group. This association was independent of age. Even though OSA is associated with increased cardiovascular risk, telomere lengthening in subjects with moderate to severe OSA suggests the presence of protective compensatory mechanisms to prevent telomere shortening in OSA. On the other hand, the existence of longer telomere in subjects with moderate and severe OSA may also indicate triggering of molecular mechanisms which may contribute to cancer development. Further studies are needed to explain the role of hypoxia in telomere dynamics in OSA, and the interactions between telomere length and increased longevity reported in older patients with OSA. Support or Funding Information NIH R01 grant (#HL65176); Singh P. is supported by AHA scientist development grant (11SDG7260046). Becari C. is supported by grant from CNPq‐Brazil (# 203802/2014‐4).

Hypertension is commonly observed with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), partly due to dysregulation of sympathetic activity. As OSA is considered male-dominant, potential sex differences in the sympathetic regulation of BP have yet to be explored. Hemodynamic responses to an orthostatic challenge have implications for cardiovascular risk and are sympathetically-modulated. Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that females with OSA have differential BP and HR responses to orthostasis relative to males with OSA. 160 individuals not taking antihypertensive medications completed an overnight polysomnography to identify OSA (apnea-hypopnea index ≥5 events/hr). Orthostatic responses were quantified as the changes (Δ) in BP and HR (assessed via brachial cuff) from rest (10min supine) to 60sec post-standing. Females with (n=17, 42±14yrs, 30.7±6.0kg/m2) and without (n=43, 39±12yrs, 27.6±5.7kg/m2) OSA were compared to males with (n=60, 45±11yrs, 31.4±3.8kg/m2) and without (n=40, 39±13yrs, 27.4±3.1kg/m2) OSA using a one-way ANOVA. There were no between-group differences in age (p>0.05 for post-hoc comparisons) and BMI was lower in both females, and males, without OSA relative to males with OSA (p<0.05 for both). ΔSBP did not differ between females with (1±8mmHg) and without (2±8mmHg) OSA nor between males with (4±8mmHg) and without OSA (5±12mmHg, ANOVA p=0.37). Females with OSA had a blunted ΔDBP relative to females without OSA (5±7 vs. 10±6mmHg, p<0.05), whereas males with and without OSA demonstrated similar responses (9±8 vs. 10±6mmHg, p=0.95). ΔHR did not differ between females with (8±8beats/min) and without OSA (9±11beats/min) nor between males with (13±10beats/min) and without OSA (12±10beats/min, ANOVA p=0.06). ΔDBP was not associated with the apnea-hypopnea index (Spearman's r=-0.19, p=0.47; Spearman’s r=0.23, p=0.08) nor nadir SpO2 (Spearman's r=0.27, p=0.29; Spearman’s r=0.06, p=0.64) in females or males with OSA. These data suggest that OSA influences the DBP response to orthostasis in females to a greater extent than males. As DBP is associated with sympathetic activation, this finding could indicate greater sympathetic dysregulation in females, relative to males, with OSA. This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health T32-HL007111 (JMB), HL134808 (NC), HL065176 (PS and VKS), and HL134885 (VKS). This is the full abstract presented at the American Physiology Summit 2023 meeting and is only available in HTML format. There are no additional versions or additional content available for this abstract. Physiology was not involved in the peer review process.

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a highly prevalent sleep disorder and an established risk factor for cardiovascular diseases, including hypertension. The pathogenesis of elevated blood pressure (BP) in OSA is multifactorial, including sympathetic overdrive, vascular aberrations, oxidative stress, inflammation, and metabolic dysregulation. Among the mechanisms potentially involved in OSA-induced hypertension, the role of the gut microbiome is gaining increasing attention. Perturbations in the diversity, composition, and function of the gut microbiota have been causally linked to numerous disorders, and robust evidence has identified gut dysbiosis as a determinant of BP elevation in various populations. In this brief review, we summarize the current body of literature on the implications of altered gut microbiota for hypertension risk in OSA. Data from both preclinical models of OSA and patient populations are presented, and potential mechanistic pathways are highlighted, along with therapeutic considerations. Available evidence suggests that gut dysbiosis may promote the development of hypertension in OSA and may thus be a target for interventions aimed at attenuating the adverse consequences of OSA in relation to cardiovascular risk.

We examined the effect of intermittent hypoxia (IH, a hallmark feature of sleep apnea) on adipose tissue lipolysis and the role of endothelin-1 (ET-1) in this response. We hypothesized that IH can increase ET-1 secretion and plasma free fatty acid (FFA) concentrations. We further hypothesized that inhibition of ET-1 receptor activation with bosentan could prevent any IH-mediated increase in FFA. To test this hypothesis, 16 healthy male participants (32 ± 5 yr, 26 ± 2 kg/m2) were exposed to 30 min of IH in the absence (control) and presence of bosentan (62.5 mg oral twice daily for 3 days prior). Arterial blood samples for ET-1, epinephrine, and FFA concentrations, as well as abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue biopsies (to assess transcription of cellular receptors/proteins involved in lipolysis), were collected. Additional proof-of-concept studies were conducted in vitro using primary differentiated human white preadipocytes (HWPs). We show that IH increased circulating ET-1, epinephrine, and FFA ( P < 0.05). Bosentan treatment reduced plasma epinephrine concentrations and blunted IH-mediated increases in FFA ( P < 0.01). In adipose tissue, bosentan had no effect on cellular receptors and proteins involved in lipolysis ( P > 0.05). ET-1 treatment did not directly induce lipolysis in differentiated HWP. In conclusion, IH increases plasma ET-1 and FFA concentrations. Inhibition of ET-1 receptors with bosentan attenuates the FFA increase in response to IH. Based on a lack of a direct effect of ET-1 in HWP, we speculate the effect of bosentan on circulating FFA in vivo may be secondary to its ability to reduce sympathoadrenal tone.

Introduction: Growing evidence suggests that aberrant sleep architecture is linked to heightened risk of cardiovascular disease independently of sleep apnea. Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep is characterized by increased sympathetic activity and blood pressure (BP) compared to non-REM sleep stages. However, whether REM sleep is associated with BP across the 24 hours has not been investigated. Hypothesis: We hypothesized that increased REM sleep would be associated with higher ambulatory BP. Methods: We recruited 137 individuals (58% men, aged 39±14 years, office systolic/diastolic BP [SBP/DBP] 125±14/77±11 mmHg) who completed overnight polysomnography followed by 24-h ambulatory BP monitoring. Sleep was scored according to standard criteria. 24-h, daytime, and nighttime averages were calculated for SBP, DBP and heart rate. REM sleep duration was computed as percentage of total sleep time and used to group participants into tertiles as follows: T1 (REM% ≤18.8), T2 (REM% 18.9-24), and T3 (REM% ≥24.1). Results: Sex ratio, body mass index, and apnea-hypopnea index were similar across REM tertiles, but age increased with increasing tertiles (p=0.029). 24-h SBP (T1 vs T2 vs T3: 121±12 vs 117±7 vs 124±12 mmHg, p=0.015) and DBP (72±7 vs 70±6 vs 76±8 mmHg, p<0.001) differed across REM sleep tertiles, with significantly higher values in those in the highest tertile. Results were consistent when considering daytime SBP (T1 vs T2 vs T3: 126±12 vs 122±8 vs 132±14 mmHg, p<0.001) and DBP (77±7 vs 76±6 vs 83±9 mmHg, p<0.001), and nighttime DBP (65±9 vs 61±7 vs 65±8 mmHg, p=0.047). No differences were noted on nighttime SBP or any heart rate measures. A significant interaction was found between hypertension status and REM sleep in multiple regression analysis, with the observed associations being significant only among hypertensives (n=69). In those with hypertension, REM sleep duration was associated with 24-h mean BP independently of age, sex, body mass index, apnea-hypopnea index and antihypertensive medications (standardized beta 0.22, p=0.041). Conclusions: Longer REM sleep duration is independently associated with elevated ambulatory BP in individuals with hypertension. REM sleep may be a novel cardiovascular risk indicator in this population.