McNiven, Mark A.

The dynamin family of large GTPases has been implicated in vesicle formation from both the plasma membrane and various intracellular membrane compartments. The dynamin-like protein DLP1, recently identified in mammalian tissues, has been shown to be more closely related to the yeast dynamin proteins Vps1p and Dnm1p (42%) than to the mammalian dynamins (37%). Furthermore, DLP1 has been shown to associate with punctate vesicles that are in intimate contact with microtubules and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in mammalian cells. To define the function of DLP1, we have transiently expressed both wild-type and two mutant DLP1 proteins, tagged with green fluorescent protein, in cultured mammalian cells. Point mutations in the GTP-binding domain of DLP1 (K38A and D231N) dramatically changed its intracellular distribution from punctate vesicular structures to either an aggregated or a diffuse pattern. Strikingly, cells expressing DLP1 mutants or microinjected with DLP1 antibodies showed a marked reduction in ER fluorescence and a significant aggregation and tubulation of mitochondria by immunofluorescence microscopy. Consistent with these observations, electron microscopy of DLP1 mutant cells revealed a striking and quantitative change in the distribution and morphology of mitochondria and the ER. These data support very recent studies by other authors implicating DLP1 in the maintenance of mitochondrial morphology in both yeast and mammalian cells. Furthermore, this study provides the first evidence that a dynamin family member participates in the maintenance and distribution of the ER. How DLP1 might participate in the biogenesis of two presumably distinct organelle systems is discussed.

Dynamins are 100-kDa GTPases that are essential for clathrin-coated vesicle formation during receptor-mediated endocytosis. To date, three different dynamin genes have been identified, with each gene expressing at least four different alternatively spliced forms. Currently, it is unclear whether these different dynamin gene products perform distinct or redundant cellular functions. Therefore, the focus of this study was to identify additional spliced variants of dynamin from rat tissues and to define the distribution of the dynamin family members in a cultured rat epithelial cell model (Clone 9 cells). After long-distance reverse transcription (RT)-PCR of mRNA from different rat tissues, the full-length cDNAs encoding the different dynamin isoforms were sequenced and revealed four additional spliced variants for dynamin I and nine for dynamin III. Thus, in rat tissues there are a total of at least 25 different mRNAs produced from the three dynamin genes. Subsequently, we generated stably transfected Clone 9 cells expressing full-length cDNAs of six different spliced forms tagged with green fluorescent protein. Confocal or fluorescence microscopy of these transfected cells revealed that many of the dynamin proteins associate with distinct membrane compartments, which include clathrin-coated pits at the plasma membrane and the Golgi apparatus, and several undefined vesicle populations. These results indicate that the dynamin family is more extensive than was originally predicted and suggest that the different dynamin proteins are localized to distinct cytoplasmic or membrane compartments.

Ubiquitination of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) by cbl and its cognate adaptor cbl-interacting protein of 85 kDa (CIN85) is known to play an essential role in directing this receptor to the lysosome for degradation. The mechanisms by which this ubiquitin modification is regulated are not fully defined, nor is it clear where this process occurs. In this study we show that EGFR activation leads to a pronounced src-mediated tyrosine phosphorylation of CIN85 that subsequently influences EGFR ubiquitination. Of importance, phospho-CIN85 interacts with the Rab5-positive endosome, where it mediates the sequestration of the ubiquitinated receptor into multivesicular bodies (MVBs) for subsequent degradation. These findings provide novel insights into how src- kinase–based regulation of a cbl adaptor regulates the fate of the EGFR.

Steatosis, an early manifestation in alcoholic liver disease, is associated with the accumulation of hepatocellular lipid droplets (LDs). However, the role ethanol metabolism has in LD formation and turnover remains undefined. Here, we assessed LD dynamics following ethanol and oleic acid treatment to ethanol-metabolizing WIF-B cells (a hybrid of human fibroblasts (WI 38) and Fao rat hepatoma cells). An OA dose-dependent increase in triglyceride and stained lipids was identified which doubled ( P < 0.05 ) in the presence of ethanol. This effect was blunted with the inclusion of an alcohol metabolism inhibitor. The ethanol/ OA combination also induced adipophilin, LD coat protein involved in the attenuation of lipolysis. Additionally, ethanol treatment resulted in a significant reduction in lipid efflux. These data demonstrate that the metabolism of ethanol in hepatic cells is related to LD accumulation, impaired fat efflux, and enhancements in LD-associated proteins. These alterations in LD dynamics may contribute to ethanol-mediated defects in hepatocellular LD regulation and the formation of steatosis.

Tumor cell migration and the concomitant degradation of extracellular matrix (ECM) are two essential steps in the metastatic process. It is well established that focal adhesions (FAs) play an important role in regulating migration; however, whether these structures contribute to matrix degradation is not clear. In this study, we report that multiple cancer cell lines display degradation of ECM at FA sites that requires the targeted action of MT1-MMP. Importantly, we have found that this MT1-MMP targeting is dependent on an association with a FAK–p130Cas complex situated at FAs and is regulated by Src-mediated phosphorylation of Tyr 573 at the cytoplasmic tail of MT1. Disrupting the FAK–p130Cas–MT1 complex significantly impairs FA-mediated degradation and tumor cell invasion yet does not appear to affect invadopodia formation or function. These findings demonstrate a novel function for FAs and also provide molecular insights into MT1-MMP targeting and function.

Tumor cell migration is supported in part by the cyclic formation and disassembly of focal adhesions (FAs); however, the mechanisms that regulate this process are not fully defined. The large guanosine 5′-triphosphatase dynamin (Dyn) plays an important role in FA dynamics and is activated by tyrosine phosphorylation. Using a novel antibody specific to phospho-dynamin (pDyn–Tyr-231), we found that Dyn2 is phosphorylated at FAs by Src kinase and is recruited to FAs by a direct interaction with the 4.1/ezrin/radizin/moesin domain of focal adhesion kinase (FAK), which functions as an adaptor between Src and Dyn2 to facilitate Dyn2 phosphorylation. This Src–FAK–Dyn2 trimeric complex is essential for FA turnover, as mutants disrupting the formation of this complex inhibit FA disassembly. Importantly, phosphoactivated Dyn2 promotes FA turnover by mediating the endocytosis of integrins in a clathrin-dependent manner. This study defines a novel mechanism of how Dyn2 functions as a downstream effector of FAK–Src signaling in turning over FAs.

Treatment with monoclonal antibody (mAbs) is a viable therapeutic option in cancer. Recently, these mAbs such as cetuximab, herceptin, etc., have been used as targeting agents to selectively deliver chemotherapeutics to cancerous cells. However, mechanisms of nanoparticles-mAbs interactions with the target cells and its effect on intracellular trafficking and mechanism are currently unknown. In this paper, we demonstrate that the distinct patterning and dynamics of anti-EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) antibody cetuximab (C225)- induced EGFR internalization in pancreatic cancer cells with variable receptor expression is altered upon nanoconjugation. Nanoconjugation uniformly enhanced C225-induced EGFR endocytosis in PANC-1, AsPC-1, and MiaPaca-2 cells, influenced its compartmentalization and regulated the involvement of dynamin-2 in the endocytic processes. Receptor endocytosis and its intracellular trafficking were monitored by confocal microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The role of dynamin-2 in EGFR endocytosis was determined after overexpressing either wild-type dynamin-2 or mutant dynamin-2 in pancreatic cancer cells followed by tracking the receptor-antibody complex internalization by confocal microscopy. Significantly, these findings demonstrate that the nanoconjugation cannot be construed as an innocuous reaction involved in attaching the targeting agent to the nanoparticle, instead it may distinctly alter the cellular processes at the molecular level, at least antibody induced receptor endocytosis. This information is critical for successful design of a nanoparticle-based targeted drug delivery system for future clinical translation.

The size and integrity of the Golgi apparatus is maintained via a tightly controlled regulation of membrane traffic using a variety of different signaling and cytoskeletal proteins. We have recently observed that activation of c-Src has profound effects on Golgi structure, leading to dramatically vesiculated cisternae in a variety of cell types. As the large GTPase dynamin (Dyn2) has been implicated in Golgi vesiculation during secretion, we tested whether inhibiting Dyn2 activity by expression of a Dyn2K44A mutant or siRNA knockdown could attenuate active Src-induced Golgi fragmentation. Indeed, these perturbations attenuated fragmentation, and expression of a Dyn2Y(231/597)F mutant protein that cannot be phosphorylated by Src kinase had a similar effect . Finally, we find that Dyn2 is markedly phosphorylated during the transit of VSV-G protein through the TGN whereas expression of the Dyn2Y(231/597)F mutant significantly reduces exit of the nascent protein from this compartment. These findings demonstrate that activation of Dyn2 by Src kinase regulates Golgi integrity and vesiculation during the secretory process.

Remodeling of cell–cell contacts through the internalization of adherens junction proteins is an important event during both normal development and the process of tumor cell metastasis. Here we show that the integrity of tumor cell–cell contacts is disrupted after epidermal growth factor (EGF) stimulation through caveolae-mediated endocytosis of the adherens junction protein E-cadherin. Caveolin-1 and E-cadherin closely associated at cell borders and in internalized structures upon stimulation with EGF. Furthermore, preventing caveolae assembly through reduction of caveolin-1 protein or expression of a caveolin-1 tyrosine phospho-mutant resulted in the accumulation of E-cadherin at cell borders and the formation of tightly adherent cells. Most striking was the fact that exogenous expression of caveolin-1 in tumor cells that contain tight, well-defined, borders resulted in a dramatic dispersal of these cells. Together, these findings provide new insights into how cells might disassemble cell–cell contacts to help mediate the remodeling of adherens junctions, and tumor cell metastasis and invasion.