Citations

Objectives To assess whether HOUSES (HOUsing-based index of socioeconomic status (SES)) is associated with risk of and mortality after rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Design We conducted a population-based case–control study which enrolled population-based RA cases and their controls without RA. Setting The study was performed in Olmsted County, Minnesota. Participants Study participants were all residents of Olmsted County, Minnesota, with RA identified using the 1987 American College of Rheumatology criteria for RA from 1 January 1988, to 31 December 2007, using the auspices of the Rochester Epidemiology Project. For each patient with RA, one control was randomly selected from Olmsted County residents of similar age and gender without RA. Primary and secondary outcome measure The disease status was RA cases and their matched controls in relation to HOUSES as an exposure. As a secondary aim, post-RA mortality among only RA cases was an outcome event. The associations of SES measured by HOUSES with the study outcomes were assessed using logistic regression and Cox models. HOUSES, as a composite index, was formulated based on a summed z-score for housing value, square footage and number of bedrooms and bathrooms. Results Of the eligible 604 participants, 418 (69%) were female; the mean age was 56±15.6 years. Lower SES, as measured by HOUSES, was associated with the risk of developing RA (0.5±3.8 for controls vs −0.2±3.1 for RA cases, p=0.003), adjusting for age, gender, calendar year of RA index date, smoking status and BMI. The lowest quartile of HOUSES was significantly associated with increased post-RA mortality compared to higher quartiles of HOUSES (HR 1.74; 95% CI 1.10 to 2.74; p=0.017) in multivariate analysis. Conclusions Lower SES, as measured by HOUSES, is associated with increased risk of RA and mortality after RA. HOUSES may be a useful tool for health disparities research concerning rheumatological outcomes when conventional SES measures are unavailable.

Background: To assess whether the individual housing-based socioeconomic status (SES) measure termed HOUSES was associated with post-myocardial infarction (MI) mortality. Methods: The study was designed as a population-based cohort study, which compared post-MI mortality among Olmsted County, Minnesota, USA, residents with different SES as measured by HOUSES using Cox proportional hazards models. Subjects’ addresses at index date of MI were geocoded to real property data to formulate HOUSES (a z-score for housing value, square footage, and numbers of bedrooms and bathrooms). Educational levels were used as a comparison for the HOUSES index. Results: 637 of the 696 eligible patients with MI (92%) were successfully geocoded to real property data. Post-MI survival rates were 60% (50–72), 78% (71–85), 72% (60–87), and 87% (81–93) at 2 years for patients in the first (the lowest SES), second, third, and fourth quartiles of HOUSES, respectively (p < 0.001). HOUSES was associated with post-MI all-cause mortality, controlling for all variables except age and comorbidity (p = 0.036) but was not significant after adjusting for age and comorbidity (p = 0.24). Conclusions: Although HOUSES is associated with post-MI mortality, the differential mortality rates by HOUSES were primarily accounted for by age and comorbid conditions. HOUSES may be useful for health disparities research concerning cardiovascular outcomes, especially in overcoming the paucity of conventional SES measures in commonly used datasets.

Objectives Asthmatics have increased risks of airway-related infections. Little is known about whether this is true for non-airway-related serious infections such as Escherichia coli bloodstream infection (BSI). We assessed whether asthma is associated with a risk of developing community-acquired E coli BSI. Design The study was designed as a population-based retrospective case–control study. Setting This population-based study was conducted in Olmsted County, Minnesota. Participants The study included 259 all eligible community-acquired E coli BSI cases in Olmsted County, MN between 1998 and 2007 and 259 birthday-matched, gender-matched and residency-matched controls. Primary and secondary outcome measures Only community-acquired E coli BSI cases as the primary outcome was included. Asthma status as an exposure was ascertained by predetermined criteria. An adjusted OR and 95% CI for the association between asthma and risk of community-acquired E coli BSI was calculated using conditional logistic regression. Results Of 259 eligible cases, 179 (69%) were women and mean age was 61±22 years. Of the 259 cases 37 (14%) and 16 (6%) of 259 controls had a prior history of asthma (adjusted OR 2.74; 95% CI 1.11 to 6.76; p=0.029). The population attributable risk of asthma for community-acquired E coli BSI was 9%. Although not statistically significant, there was a borderline association between having a history of food allergy and increased risk of community-acquired E coli BSI (6% vs 2%; adjusted OR 3.51; 95% CI 0.94 to 13.11; p=0.062). Conclusions Based on the findings of the current population-based, case–control investigation, a history of asthma may be associated with risk of community-acquired E coli BSI. The impact of asthma on risk of microbial infections may go beyond airways.

Background Socioeconomic status (SES) is an important determinant of health, but SES measures are frequently unavailable in commonly used datasets. Area-level SES measures are used as proxy measures of individual SES when the individual measures are lacking. Little is known about the agreement between individual-level versus area-level SES measures in mixed urban–rural settings. Methods We identified SES agreement by comparing information from telephone self-reported SES levels and SES calculated from area-level SES measures. We assessed the impact of this agreement on reported associations between SES and rates of childhood obesity, low birth weight <2500 g and smoking within the household in a mixed urban–rural setting. Results 750 households were surveyed with a response rate of 62%: 51% male, 89% Caucasian; mean child age 9.5 years. Individual-level self-reported income was more strongly associated with all three childhood health outcomes compared to area-level SES. We found significant disagreement rates of 22–31%. The weighted Cohen's κ indices ranged from 0.15 to 0.22, suggesting poor agreement between individual-level and area-level measures. Conclusion In a mixed urban–rural setting comprised of both rural and urbanised areas, area-level SES proxy measures significantly disagree with individual SES measures, and have different patterns of association with health outcomes from individual-level SES measures. Area-level SES may be an unsuitable proxy for SES when individual rather than community characteristics are of primary concern.

BACKGROUND:The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) introduced revised return-to-care recommendations for mildly ill children in 2009 that were added to national standards in 2011. Child care directors' practices in a state without clear emphasis on return-to-care guidelines are unknown. We investigated director return-to-care practices just before the release of recently revised AAP guidelines.METHODS:A telephone survey with 5 vignettes of mild illness (cold symptoms, conjunctivitis, vomiting/diarrhea, fever, and ringworm) was administered to randomly sampled directors in metropolitan Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Directors were asked about return-to-care criteria for each illness. Questions for return-to-care criteria were open-ended; multiple responses were allowed. Answers were compared with AAP return-to-care recommendations.RESULTS:A total of 305 directors participated. Based on director responses to vignettes, the percentage of correct responses regarding return-to-child care management compared with AAP return-to-care recommendations was low: fever (0%); conjunctivitis (0%); diarrhea (1.6%); cold symptoms (12%); ringworm (21%); and vomiting (80%). Two illnesses (conjunctivitis and cold symptoms) would require the child to have an urgent medical evaluation or treatment not recommended by the AAP, as follows: Conjunctivitis—antibiotics for 24 hours (62%), physician visit (49%), any antibiotic treatment (6%), and symptom resolution (4%); and Cold Symptoms—physician visit (45.6%), antibiotics (10%), and symptom resolution (25%).CONCLUSIONS:Directors’ self-reported return-to-child care practices differed substantially before the release of revised AAP return-to-care recommendations. Active adoption of AAP return-to-child care guidelines would decrease the need for unnecessary urgent medical evaluation and treatment as well as unnecessary exclusion of a child from child care.

Interleukin- (IL-) 17 is important in the development of asthma and host defense against pneumococci. We determined the role of IL-17 in the risk of pneumococcal pneumonia. We challenged mice intranasally with a bioluminescentStreptococcus pneumoniaestrain after sensitization and challenge with ovalbumin (OVA). We measured the levels of cytokines, including IL-17 (pg/mL), in the lung homogenate in experimental mice with and without OVA sensitization/challenge, as well as those with and without pneumococcal pneumonia. IL-17 levels were significantly lower in OVA-sensitized/challenged mice (9.69±1.49), compared to the control mice (20.92±1.82,P< 0.001). In our overall analysis, including IL-4 and IL-17 levels and OVA sensitization/challenge, IL-4 levels (OR: 81.9, 95%CI: 4.3–1523 per increment of 1.0 pg/mL,P= 0.003) were more significant than IL-17 levels (OR: 1.1, 95%CI: 1.03–1.17 per increment of 1.0 pg/mL,P= 0.003) in determining the risk of pneumococcal pneumonia. IL-17 levels result in a much smaller impact on the risk for pneumococcal pneumonia, compared to IL-4 levels.