Kottke, Timothy

Surface disinfection is part of a larger mitigation strategy to prevent the spread of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus causing coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19). Research evaluating the time, nature, and extent of surface disinfection of replication-competent viruses is needed. We evaluated the efficacy of two disinfectants against a replication-competent SARS-CoV-2 surrogate on three common public surfaces. Vesicular stomatitis virus expressing green fluorescent protein (VSV-GFP) was our replication-competent SARS-CoV-2 surrogate. Disinfection occurred using Super Sani-Cloth Germicidal Disposable Wipes and Oxivir Tb spray per manufacturer instructions to test the efficacy at reducing the presence, viability, and later replication of VSV-GFP on stainless steel, laminate wood, and porcelain surfaces using standardized methods after recovery and toxicity testing. During the main trials, we placed 100 µL spots of VSV-GFP at viral titers of 108, 107, and 106 PFU/mL on each surface prior to disinfection. Trials were completed in triplicate and post-disinfection measurements on each surface were compared to the measurements of non-disinfected surfaces. Disinfectants were considered efficacious when ≥3-log10 reduction in the number of infectious VSV-GFP virus units was observed on a given surface during all trials. Both disinfectants produced a ≥3.23-log10 reduction in infectious VSV-GFP virus unit numbers, with all trials showing no viable, replication-competent VSV-GFP present on any tested surface. The two disinfectants eliminated the presence, viability, and later replication of VSV-GFP, our SARS-CoV-2 surrogate, on all surfaces. This information suggests that, if following manufacturer instructions, overcleaning surfaces with multiple disinfectant solutions may be unnecessary.

Abstract Background Diffuse midline glioma, formerly DIPG (diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma), is the deadliest pediatric brainstem tumor with median survival of less than one year. Here, we investigated (i) whether direct delivery of adenovirus-expressing cluster of differentiation (CD)40 ligand (Ad-CD40L) to brainstem tumors would induce immune-mediated tumor clearance and (ii) if so, whether therapy would be associated with a manageable toxicity due to immune-mediated inflammation in the brainstem. Methods Syngeneic gliomas in the brainstems of immunocompetent mice were treated with Ad-CD40L and survival, toxicity, and immune profiles determined. A clinically translatable vector, whose replication would be tightly restricted to tumor cells, rAd-Δ24-CD40L, was tested in human patient–derived diffuse midline gliomas and immunocompetent models. Results Expression of Ad-CD40L restricted to brainstem gliomas by pre-infection induced complete rejection, associated with immune cell infiltration, of which CD4+ T cells were critical for therapy. Direct intratumoral injection of Ad-CD40L into established brainstem tumors improved survival and induced some complete cures but with some acute toxicity. RNA-sequencing analysis showed that Ad-CD40L therapy induced neuroinflammatory immune responses associated with interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor α. Therefore, to generate a vector whose replication, and transgene expression, would be tightly restricted to tumor cells, we constructed rAd-Δ24-CD40L, the backbone of which has already entered clinical trials for diffuse midline gliomas. Direct intratumoral injection of rAd-Δ24-CD40L, with systemic blockade of IL-6 and IL-1β, generated significant numbers of cures with readily manageable toxicity. Conclusions Virus-mediated delivery of CD40L has the potential to be effective in treating diffuse midline gliomas without obligatory neuroinflammation-associated toxicity.

Abstract Treatment of HL-60 human leukemia cells with etoposide induces apoptotic cell death and activation of at least 18 electrophoretically distinct cysteine-dependent aspartate-directed protease (caspase) isoforms, several of which differ only in their isoelectric points. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether activated caspases are phosphorylated. Phosphatase treatment of cytosolic extracts containing active caspases followed by affinity labeling with N-(N-benzyloxycarbonylglutamyl-N-biotinyllysyl)aspartic acid [(2,6-dimethylbenzoyl)oxy] methyl ketone (Z-EK(bio)D-aomk) showed a mobility shift in several of the labeled species, suggesting that phosphorylated forms of these enzymes are present in the extracts. Metabolic labeling with 32P followed by etoposide treatment and subsequent affinity purification of affinity-labeled caspases confirmed that at least three caspase species were phosphorylated. To detect effects of the phosphorylation on enzymatic activity, caspase-mediated cleavage of aspartylglutamylvalinylaspartyl-7-amino-4-trifluoromethylcoumarin (DEVD-AFC) and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) by phosphorylated and dephosphorylated extracts was measured. No significant changes in Km or vmax were detected using DEVD-AFC. In contrast, a slight, but significant enhancement of PARP cleavage was observed in dephosphorylated extracts, suggesting that phosphorylation of active caspases could have an inhibitory effect on enzyme activity. These observations, which provide the first evidence that caspases are phosphoproteins, suggest that caspases may be targets for some of the growing list of protein kinases that are involved in apoptotic events. © 1998 by The American Society of Hematology.

AbstractThe Fas/Fas ligand (FasL) pathway is widely involved in apoptotic cell death in lymphoid and nonlymphoid cells. It has recently been postulated that many chemotherapeutic agents also induce cell death by activating the Fas/FasL pathway. In the present study we compared apoptotic pathways induced by anti-Fas or chemotherapeutic agents in the Jurkat human T-cell leukemia line. Immunoblotting showed that treatment of wild-type Jurkat cells with anti-Fas or the topoisomerase II-directed agent etoposide resulted in proteolytic cleavage of precursors for the cysteine-dependent aspartate-directed proteases caspase-3 and caspase-7 and degradation of the caspase substrates poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) and lamin B1 . Likewise, affinity labeling with N-(Nα-benzyloxycarbonylglutamyl-Nε-biotinyllysyl)aspartic acid [(2,6-dimethyl-benzoyl)oxy]methyl ketone [Z-EK (bio)D-amok] labeled the same five active caspase species after each treatment, suggesting that the same downstream apoptotic pathways have been activated by anti-Fas and etoposide. Treatment with ZB4, an antibody that inhibits Fas-mediated cell death, failed to block etoposide-induced apoptosis, raising the possibility that etoposide does not initiate apoptosis through Fas/FasL interactions. To further explore the relationship between Fas- and chemotherapy-induced apoptosis, Fas-resistant Jurkat cells were treated with various chemotherapeutic agents. Multiple independently derived Fas-resistant Jurkat lines underwent apoptosis that was indistinguishable from that of the Fas-sensitive parental cells after treatment with etoposide, doxorubicin, topotecan, cisplatin, methotrexate, staurosporine, or γ-irradiation. These results indicate that antineoplastic treatments induce apoptosis through a Fas-independent pathway even though Fas- and chemotherapy-induced pathways converge on common downstream apoptotic effector molecules.

AbstractPrevious studies have shown that K562 chronic myelogenous leukemia cells are resistant to induction of apoptosis by a variety of agents, including the topoisomerase II (topo II) poison etoposide, when examined 4 to 24 hours after treatment with an initiating stimulus. In the present study, the responses of K562 cells and apoptosis-proficient HL-60 acute myelomonocytic leukemia cells to etoposide were compared, with particular emphasis on determining the long-term fate of the cells. When cells were treated with varying concentrations of etoposide for 1 hour and subsequently plated in soft agar, the two cell lines displayed similar sensitivities, with a 90% reduction in colony formation at 5 to 10 μmol/L etoposide. After treatment with 17 μmol/L etoposide for 1 hour, cleavage of the caspase substrate poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), DNA fragmentation, and apoptotic morphological changes were evident in HL-60 cells in less than 6 hours. After the same treatment, K562 cells arrested in G2 phase of the cell cycle but otherwise appeared normal for 3 to 4 days before developing similar apoptotic changes. When the etoposide dose was increased to 68 μmol/L, apoptotic changes were evident in HL-60 cells after 2 to 3 hours, whereas the same changes were observed in K562 cells after 24 to 48 hours. This delay in the development of apoptotic changes in K562 cells was accompanied by delayed release of cytochrome c to the cytosol and delayed appearance of peptidase activity that cleaved the fluorogenic substrates Asp-Glu-Val-Asp-aminotrifluoromethylcoumarin (DEVD-AFC) and Val-Glu-Ile-Asp-aminomethylcoumarin (VEID-AMC) as well as an altered spectrum of active caspases that were affinity labeled with N-(Nα-benzyloxycarbonylglutamyl-Nε-biotinyllysyl) aspartic acid [(2,6-dimethylbenzoyl)oxy]methyl ketone [z-EK(bio)D-aomk]. On the other hand, the activation of caspase-3 under cell-free conditions occurred with indistinguishable kinetics in cytosol prepared from the two cell lines. Collectively, these results suggest that a delay in the signaling cascade upstream of cytochrome c release and caspase activation leads to a long latent period before the active phase of apoptosis is initiated in etoposide-treated K562 cells. Once the active phase of apoptosis is initiated, the spectrum and subcellular distribution of active caspase species differ between HL-60 and K562 cells, but a similar proportion of cells are ultimately killed in both cell lines.

The Fas/Fas ligand (FasL) pathway is widely involved in apoptotic cell death in lymphoid and nonlymphoid cells. It has recently been postulated that many chemotherapeutic agents also induce cell death by activating the Fas/FasL pathway. In the present study we compared apoptotic pathways induced by anti-Fas or chemotherapeutic agents in the Jurkat human T-cell leukemia line. Immunoblotting showed that treatment of wild-type Jurkat cells with anti-Fas or the topoisomerase II-directed agent etoposide resulted in proteolytic cleavage of precursors for the cysteine-dependent aspartate-directed proteases caspase-3 and caspase-7 and degradation of the caspase substrates poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) and lamin B1 . Likewise, affinity labeling with N-(Nα-benzyloxycarbonylglutamyl-Nε-biotinyllysyl)aspartic acid [(2,6-dimethyl-benzoyl)oxy]methyl ketone [Z-EK (bio)D-amok] labeled the same five active caspase species after each treatment, suggesting that the same downstream apoptotic pathways have been activated by anti-Fas and etoposide. Treatment with ZB4, an antibody that inhibits Fas-mediated cell death, failed to block etoposide-induced apoptosis, raising the possibility that etoposide does not initiate apoptosis through Fas/FasL interactions. To further explore the relationship between Fas- and chemotherapy-induced apoptosis, Fas-resistant Jurkat cells were treated with various chemotherapeutic agents. Multiple independently derived Fas-resistant Jurkat lines underwent apoptosis that was indistinguishable from that of the Fas-sensitive parental cells after treatment with etoposide, doxorubicin, topotecan, cisplatin, methotrexate, staurosporine, or γ-irradiation. These results indicate that antineoplastic treatments induce apoptosis through a Fas-independent pathway even though Fas- and chemotherapy-induced pathways converge on common downstream apoptotic effector molecules.

Previous studies have shown that K562 chronic myelogenous leukemia cells are resistant to induction of apoptosis by a variety of agents, including the topoisomerase II (topo II) poison etoposide, when examined 4 to 24 hours after treatment with an initiating stimulus. In the present study, the responses of K562 cells and apoptosis-proficient HL-60 acute myelomonocytic leukemia cells to etoposide were compared, with particular emphasis on determining the long-term fate of the cells. When cells were treated with varying concentrations of etoposide for 1 hour and subsequently plated in soft agar, the two cell lines displayed similar sensitivities, with a 90% reduction in colony formation at 5 to 10 μmol/L etoposide. After treatment with 17 μmol/L etoposide for 1 hour, cleavage of the caspase substrate poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), DNA fragmentation, and apoptotic morphological changes were evident in HL-60 cells in less than 6 hours. After the same treatment, K562 cells arrested in G2 phase of the cell cycle but otherwise appeared normal for 3 to 4 days before developing similar apoptotic changes. When the etoposide dose was increased to 68 μmol/L, apoptotic changes were evident in HL-60 cells after 2 to 3 hours, whereas the same changes were observed in K562 cells after 24 to 48 hours. This delay in the development of apoptotic changes in K562 cells was accompanied by delayed release of cytochrome c to the cytosol and delayed appearance of peptidase activity that cleaved the fluorogenic substrates Asp-Glu-Val-Asp-aminotrifluoromethylcoumarin (DEVD-AFC) and Val-Glu-Ile-Asp-aminomethylcoumarin (VEID-AMC) as well as an altered spectrum of active caspases that were affinity labeled with N-(Nα-benzyloxycarbonylglutamyl-Nε-biotinyllysyl) aspartic acid [(2,6-dimethylbenzoyl)oxy]methyl ketone [z-EK(bio)D-aomk]. On the other hand, the activation of caspase-3 under cell-free conditions occurred with indistinguishable kinetics in cytosol prepared from the two cell lines. Collectively, these results suggest that a delay in the signaling cascade upstream of cytochrome c release and caspase activation leads to a long latent period before the active phase of apoptosis is initiated in etoposide-treated K562 cells. Once the active phase of apoptosis is initiated, the spectrum and subcellular distribution of active caspase species differ between HL-60 and K562 cells, but a similar proportion of cells are ultimately killed in both cell lines.

Treatment of HL-60 human leukemia cells with etoposide induces apoptotic cell death and activation of at least 18 electrophoretically distinct cysteine-dependent aspartate-directed protease (caspase) isoforms, several of which differ only in their isoelectric points. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether activated caspases are phosphorylated. Phosphatase treatment of cytosolic extracts containing active caspases followed by affinity labeling with N-(N-benzyloxycarbonylglutamyl-N-biotinyllysyl)aspartic acid [(2,6-dimethylbenzoyl)oxy] methyl ketone (Z-EK(bio)D-aomk) showed a mobility shift in several of the labeled species, suggesting that phosphorylated forms of these enzymes are present in the extracts. Metabolic labeling with 32P followed by etoposide treatment and subsequent affinity purification of affinity-labeled caspases confirmed that at least three caspase species were phosphorylated. To detect effects of the phosphorylation on enzymatic activity, caspase-mediated cleavage of aspartylglutamylvalinylaspartyl-7-amino-4-trifluoromethylcoumarin (DEVD-AFC) and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) by phosphorylated and dephosphorylated extracts was measured. No significant changes in Km or vmax were detected using DEVD-AFC. In contrast, a slight, but significant enhancement of PARP cleavage was observed in dephosphorylated extracts, suggesting that phosphorylation of active caspases could have an inhibitory effect on enzyme activity. These observations, which provide the first evidence that caspases are phosphoproteins, suggest that caspases may be targets for some of the growing list of protein kinases that are involved in apoptotic events.© 1998 by The American Society of Hematology.

Abstract Antitumor T-cell responses raised by first-line therapies such as chemotherapy, radiation, tumor cell vaccines, and viroimmunotherapy tend to be weak, both quantitatively (low frequency) and qualitatively (low affinity). We show here that T cells that recognize tumor-associated antigens can directly kill tumor cells if used at high effector-to-target ratios. However, when these tumor-reactive T cells were present at suboptimal ratios, direct T-cell–mediated tumor cell killing was reduced and the ability of tumor cells to evolve away from a coapplied therapy (oncolytic or suicide gene therapy) was promoted. This T-cell–mediated increase in therapeutic resistance was associated with C to T transition mutations that are characteristic of APOBEC3 cytosine deaminase activity and was induced through a TNFα and protein kinase C–dependent pathway. Short hairpin RNA inhibition of endogenous APOBEC3 reduced rates of tumor escape from oncolytic virus or suicide gene therapy to those seen in the absence of antitumor T-cell coculture. Conversely, overexpression of human APOBEC3B in tumor cells enhanced escape from suicide gene therapy and oncolytic virus therapy both in vitro and in vivo. Our data suggest that weak affinity or low frequency T-cell responses against tumor antigens may contribute to the ability of tumor cells to evolve away from first-line therapies. We conclude that immunotherapies need to be optimized as early as possible so that, if they do not kill the tumor completely, they do not promote treatment resistance.

Abstract We have previously shown that a vesicular stomatitis virus-based cDNA library expressing xenogeneic altered self-epitopes led to T-cell mediated rejection of prostate cancer, glioma and melanoma. The use of a library of altered self-peptides which reflects the transcriptome of the tumor circumvents the necessity for a priori knowledge of which antigens may be immunogenic in a patient, and primes a polyclonal T-cell response that provides strong cumulative antitumor selective pressure. We have expanded this concept of altered-self library vaccination using tumor vaccines modified by the overexpression of APOBEC3B, a cytosine deaminase that generates C to T transition mutations. A freeze-thawed whole tumor cell vaccine prepared from B16 melanoma cells stably overexpressing human APOBEC3B treated established subcutaneous parental B16 tumors and, when combined with PD-1 checkpoint blockade, cured between 75%-100% of mice. T-cells from mice treated with the vaccine and anti-PD1 produced high levels of IFN-γ when restimulated with parental unmodified B16 melanoma cells in vitro. Whole-genome sequencing of B16APOBEC3B overexpressing cells identified 301 C to T or G to A missense mutations unique to the APOBEC3B line. Using an in silico MHC binding affinity algorithm, we identified and experimentally validated a short list of 10 APOBEC3B- induced heteroclitic peptides. We have also shown that this approach can be extended to an orthotopic brainstem model of high grade glioma. GL261 tumors stereotactically implanted into the brainstem were significantly responsive to treatment with an APOBEC3B- modified GL261 vaccine in combination with anti-PD-1 checkpoint blockade. In summary, when overexpressed in tumor cells, APOBEC3B generates a library of heteroclitic sequences that primes both CD4 and CD8 T-cells that have escaped central tolerance and that recognize both newly mutated antigens from the vaccine, and the corresponding unaltered self epitopes expressed on the tumor cells. Citation Format: Richard Vile, Laura Evgin, Timothy Kottke, Matthew Schuelke, Christopher B. Driscoll, Amanda L. Huff, Jill Thompson, Amy Molan, Reuben S. Harris, Jose S. Pulido, Phonphimon Wongthida. Cancer immunotherapy with APOBEC3B-induced heteroclitic library tumor cell vaccines and immune checkpoint blockade [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Fourth CRI-CIMT-EATI-AACR International Cancer Immunotherapy Conference: Translating Science into Survival; Sept 30-Oct 3, 2018; New York, NY. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Immunol Res 2019;7(2 Suppl):Abstract nr B138.