Enninga, Elizabeth Ann L.

Galectin-9, a β-galactoside-binding protein, is defined as a negative regulator of T helper 1 (Th1) immune responses, favoring Th2 bias. Systemic immunity in patients with metastatic melanoma is predominantly Th2 biased. We hypothesized that galectin-9 can modulate systemic immunity toward Th2 polarization in patients with advanced melanoma. The presence or concentration of galectin-9 was assessed in tumors and plasma, in patients with metastatic melanoma. The immunomodulatory function of galectin-9 was determined by exposing human peripheral blood mononuclear cells to galectin-9 in vitro. Galectin-9 was expressed in 57% of tumors and was significantly (3.6-fold) increased in the plasma of patients with advanced melanoma compared with healthy controls (P<0.001). High plasma galectin-9 concentration was associated with systemic Th2 polarization and reduced 2-year survival compared with low/no galectin-9 expression. In-vitro, galectin-9 reduced proliferation of healthy peripheral blood mononuclear cells, and promoted Th1 cell apoptosis, Th2-biased cell phenotypes, and cytokine secretion. Galectin-9 also stimulated monocyte differentiation toward an M2 macrophage phenotype, as assessed by chemokine/cytokine secretion and CD206 expression, observed both in vitro as well as in patients with metastatic melanoma. Elevated galectin-9 in patient plasma correlated with Th2 systemic bias and less favorable clinical outcomes for patients with metastatic melanoma. This Th2 bias appears to be not only a feature of the known mechanisms of Th1 apoptosis by T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing-3 binding, but also mediated by myeloid cell differentiation toward an M2 phenotype, that favors tumor progression. These data support galectin-9 as a novel therapeutic target for patients with metastatic melanoma.

Abstract Introduction: Galectin-9 (Gal-9) is a carbohydrate-binding protein that interacts with T-cell immunoglobulin mucin 3 (TIM3) to modulate immune homeostasis. The Gal-9/TIM3 interaction down regulates activated T cells which promotes tumor growth, much like program death 1 (PD-1) and its ligand (PD-L1). Still, the effect Gal-9 has on the immune environment of melanoma patients is weakly understood. This study focuses on the role of Gal-9 in immunoregulation of healthy persons and metastatic melanoma patients. Methods: Soluble Gal-9 levels were determined from plasma collected from patients and healthy persons using standard ELISA methods. Proliferation and apoptosis of cells in the presence and absence of Gal-9 was determined by mixed lymphocyte reactions and Tunnel staining. Supernatants from these reactions were collected and run using a cytokine bead assay to determine changes in immune parameters with and without Gal-9. Results: Soluble Gal-9 was significantly higher in metastatic melanoma patients compared to healthy controls (3929 vs. 877 pg/mL, p=0.0003 respectively). In the presence of Gal-9, the proliferative effect of an allostimulus could be overridden until the level of responder cells to stimulator cells was 4:1. Using an apoptosis assay, Gal-9 was found to increase the level of cellular apoptosis; however, apoptosis was decreased as the allostimulus increased. Healthy cells incubated with Gal-9 were found to increase secretion of growth factors (EGF and FGF-2), chemokines (CXCL1, CXCL8, CCL2 and CCL3), T helper 1 cytokines (IFN-g and IL-7) which have shown tumor promoting affects and T helper 2 cytokines (IL-13 and IL-4). Conclusions: Gal-9 may potentially play a role in suppressing anti-tumor immunity. This suggests the use of a Gal-9 neutralizing antibody for therapeutic benefit in melanoma. Citation Format: Elizabeth Ann L. Enninga, Wendy K. Nevala, Svetomir N. Markovic. Galectin-9 has tumor promoting properties that may be targetable in metastatic melanoma. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the AACR Special Conference: Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy: A New Chapter; December 1-4, 2014; Orlando, FL. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Immunol Res 2015;3(10 Suppl):Abstract nr A41.

Several recent studies have shown differences in the maternal immune milieu at different phases of pregnancy, but most studies have been cross-sectional or of relatively few time points. Levels of 42 cytokines were determined using a multiplex bead-based assay on archived serum from a cohort of pregnant womenN=16at median of 18 time points tested, from the first trimester through to parturition, per woman. Unconditional growth modeling was then used to determine time-dependent changes in levels of these cytokines. Macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC, aka CCL22) decreases as pregnancy progresses. IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12p70, IL-13, IL-15, IP-10, and FLT3-ligand increase as a function of gestational weeks, and IFNα2, IL-1ra, IL-3, IL-9, IL-12p40, and soluble CD40 ligand increase as a function of trimester. As pregnancy normally progresses, a maternal shift away from a type 2-biased immune response and toward an inflammatory/counterregulatory response is observed.

ProblemSeveral pregnancy complications have disparities based on the sex of the fetus. It is unknown whether the sex of the fetus differentially alters the maternal immune milieu, potentially contributing to the observed differences.Method of studyUsing maternal plasma collected during 38 uncomplicated pregnancies (19 males, 19 females), we compared levels of cytokines, sex hormones, and angiogenic factors throughout gestation and postpartum.ResultsMale fetal sex was associated with higher levels of proinflammatory cytokines (G‐CSF, IL‐12p70, IL‐21, and IL‐33) and angiogenic factors (PlGF and VEGF‐A) compared with female fetal sex at multiple timepoints. Female fetal sex was associated with higher levels of regulatory cytokines (IL‐5, IL‐9, IL‐17, and IL‐25). IL‐27 increased throughout pregnancy regardless of fetal sex. There was no fetal sex‐based difference in analyte concentrations at the postpartum measurement.ConclusionWomen carrying a male fetus exhibit a more proinflammatory/proangiogenic immune milieu than women carrying a female fetus.