Pease, Larry R.

Abstract IL-12p70, a heterodimer composed of p35 and p40 subunits, is a key polarizing cytokine produced by maturing dendritic cells (DCs). We report that cigarette smoke extract (CSE), an extract of soluble cigarette smoke components, suppresses both p35 and p40 production by LPS or CD40L-matured DCs. Suppression of IL-12p70 production from maturing DCs was not observed in the presence of nicotine concentrations achievable in CSE or in the circulation of smokers. The suppressed IL-12p70 protein production by CSE-conditioned DCs was restored by pretreatment of DCs or CSE with the antioxidants N-acetylcysteine and catalase. Inhibition of DC IL-12p70 by CSE required activation of ERK-dependent pathways, since inhibition of ERK abrogated the suppressive effect of CSE on IL-12 secretion. Oxidative stress and sustained ERK phosphorylation by CSE enhanced nuclear levels of the p40 transcriptional repressor c-fos in both immature and maturing DCs. Suppression of the p40 subunit by CSE also resulted in diminished production of IL-23 protein by maturing DCs. Using a murine model of chronic cigarette smoke exposure, we observed that systemic and lung DCs from mice “smokers” produced significantly less IL-12p70 and p40 protein upon maturation. This inhibitory effect was selective, since production of TNF-α during DC maturation was enhanced in the smokers. These data imply that oxidative stress generated by cigarette smoke exposure suppresses the generation of key cytokines by maturing DCs through the activation of ERK-dependent pathways. Some of the cigarette smoke-induced inhibitory effects on DC function may be mitigated by antioxidants.

Abstract Dendritic cells (DC) are important regulators of T cell immunity. The degree of stimulation, the pattern of costimulatory molecules expressed, and the cytokines secreted by DC dictate the nature of the effector and memory cells generated, particularly with respect to their Th1 or Th2 phenotypes. In this study, we demonstrate that the addition of activated DC to spleen cultures containing established Th2-polarized CD4+ T cells was sufficient to suppress Th2 and induce Th1 cytokines in a recall response, a phenomenon referred to as phenotype reversal. The ability of activated DC to induce phenotype reversal displayed exquisite Ag specificity. The DC activator B7-DC cross-linking Ab (XAb) was >10,000-fold more efficient at inducing phenotype reversal than the TLR agonists CpG-oligodeoxynucleotide and Gardiquimod. Characterization of the mechanisms governing phenotype reversal revealed the requirement for cognate interaction between the TCR:peptide-MHC complex, the expression of the costimulation/adhesion molecule ICAM-1, and secretion of IL-12 and IFN-γ by the activated DC. The requirement for the costimulation/adhesion molecule SLAM (signaling lymphocytic activation molecule) was found to be quantitative. Thus, activation of DC, particularly by crosslinking B7-DC, can modulate well-established Th2 T cell responses in an Ag-specific manner. Because the regulation of mouse and human DC by B7-DC XAb overlaps in several significant ways, immune modulation with B7-DC XAb is a potential strategy for treating Th2-mediated diseases.

Abstract Myeloid dendritic cells (mDC) activated with a B7-DC-specific cross-linking IgM Ab (B7-DC XAb) take up and retain Ag and interact with T cell compartments to affect a number of biologic changes that together cause strong antitumor responses and blockade of inflammatory airway disease in animal models. The molecular events mediating the initial responses in mDC remain unclear. In this study we show that B7-DC XAb caused rapid phosphorylation of the adaptor protein DAP12 and intracellular kinases Syk and phospholipase C-γ1. Pretreatment of mDC with the Syk inhibitor piceatannol blocked B7-DC XAb-induced Ag uptake with a concomitant loss of tumor protection in mice. Vaccination with tumor lysate-pulsed wild-type B7-DC XAb-activated mDC, but not TREM-2 knockout XAb-activated mDC, protected mice from lethal melanoma challenge. Multimolecular caps appeared within minutes of B7-DC XAb binding to either human or mouse mDC, and FRET analysis showed that class II, CD80, CD86, and TREM-2 are recruited in tight association on the cell surface. When TREM-2 expression was reduced in wild-type mDC using short hairpin RNA or by using mDC from TREM-2 knockout mice, in vitro DC failed to take up Ag after B7-DC XAb stimulation. These results directly link TREM-2 signaling with one change in the mDC phenotype that occurs in response to this unique Ab. The parallel signaling events observed in both human and mouse mDC support the hypothesis that B7-DC cross-linking may be useful as a therapeutic immune modulator in human patients.

Abstract Cross-linking cell surface molecules with IgM Abs is a specific approach for activating cells in vitro or in vivo. Dendritic cells (DC) activated with a human B7-DC (PD-L2)-specific IgM Ab can induce strong antitumor responses and block inflammatory airway disease in experimental models, yet the Ab-mediated molecular events promoting these responses remain unclear. Analysis of human or mouse DC treated with the B7-DC cross-linking Ab revealed PI3K-dependent phosphorylation of AKT accompanied by mobilization of NF-κB. Ab-activated DC up-regulated expression of cytokine and chemokine genes in an NF-κB-dependent manner. Importantly, PI3K→AKT→NF-κB activation was found to be indispensable for B7-DC cross-linking Ab-mediated protection of DC from cell death caused by cytokine withdrawal. Although other DC activators similarly protect DC from cell death, a synergy between cross-linking B7-DC and ligating RANK was observed. The parallel signaling events induced in human and mouse DC demonstrate that activation of cells using IgM Ab results in a response governed by a common mechanism and support the hypothesis that B7-DC cross-linking using this Ab may provide beneficial therapeutic immune modulation in human patients similar to those seen in animal models.

Abstract IL-33 promotes type 2 immune responses, both protective and pathogenic. Recently, targets of IL-33, including several newly discovered type 2 innate cells, have been characterized in the periphery. In this study, we report that bone marrow cells from wild-type C57BL/6 mice responded with IL-5 and IL-13 production when cultured with IL-33. IL-33 cultures of bone marrow cells from Rag1 KO and KitW-sh/W-sh mice also responded similarly; hence, eliminating the possible contributions of T, B, and mast cells. Rather, intracellular staining revealed that the IL-5– and IL-13–positive cells display a marker profile consistent with the Lineage−Sca-1+c-Kit−CD25+ (LSK−CD25+) cells, a bone marrow cell population of previously unknown function. Freshly isolated LSK−CD25+ cells uniformly express ST2, the IL-33 receptor. In addition, culture of sorted LSK−CD25+ cells showed that they indeed produce IL-5 and IL-13 when cultured with IL-33 plus IL-2 and IL-33 plus IL-7. Furthermore, i.p. injections of IL-33 or IL-25 into mice induced LSK−CD25+ cells to expand, in both size and frequency, and to upregulate ST2 and α4β7 integrin, a mucosal homing marker. Thus, we identify the enigmatic bone marrow LSK−CD25+ cells as IL-33 responsive, both in vitro and in vivo, with attributes similar to other type 2 innate cells described in peripheral tissues.

Abstract Innate immune effector mechanisms triggered by oncolytic viruses may contribute to the clearance of both infected and uninfected tumor cells in immunocompetent murine hosts. Here, we developed an in vitro tumor cell/bone marrow coculture assay and used it to dissect innate immune sensor and effector responses to intratumoral vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV). We found that the type III IFN interleukin-28 (IL-28) was induced by viral activation of innate immune-sensing cells, acting as a key mediator of VSV-mediated virotherapy of B16ova melanomas. Using tumor variants which differentially express the IL-28 receptor, we showed that IL-28 induced by VSV within the tumor microenvironment sensitizes tumor cells to natural killer cell recognition and activation. These results revealed new insights into the immunovirological mechanisms associated with oncolytic virotherapy in immune-competent hosts. Moreover, they defined a new class of tumor-associated mutation, such as acquired loss of responsiveness to IL-28 signaling, which confers insensitivity to oncolytic virotherapy through a mechanism independent of viral replication in vitro. Lastly, the findings suggested new strategies to manipulate immune signals that may enhance viral replication, along with antitumor immune activation, and improve the efficacy of oncolytic virotherapies. Cancer Res; 70(11); 4539–49. ©2010 AACR.